i 


1 




Copyright N" 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON - CHICAGO 
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 
QUANTITATIVE STUDIES 



BY 
GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER 

•1 

AND 
EDWARD L. THORNDIKE 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



N^m f 0rk 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1913 

All rig/its reserved 







i^'s^. 



Copyright, 1913, 

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 19 13. 



PRESS OF T. MOREY & SON, 
(iliKKNFIKLl), MASS., U. S. A. 



©CLA332940 



PREFACE 

It is the purpose of this book to enable students of education 
to learn some of the methods and results of recent scientific studies 
of school administration. Teachers of education in universities 
feel the need of supplementing students' acquaintance with the 
common-sense principles of school management by some study of 
impartial and exact investigations which carry knowledge beyond 
conventional opinions, no matter how sagacious. 

At present they must, to do this, rely solely upon lectures or 
require students to read long, technical and highly specialized 
reports of original investigations, access to which is often difhcult, 
especially in the case of large classes. 

The selections quoted or summarized in this volume are delib- 
erately chosen from the work that has been done at Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University, in the appHcation of quantitative 
methods to administrative problems. This seemed best for two 
reasons. The contents of the volume have thus a natural unity 
of purpose, method and subject matter. The likeHhood is thereby 
increased that similar volum.es will be prepared adapting for 
students' use the work done by other natural groups of investi- 
gators. 



CONTENTS 



PART I 

STUDIES OF THE STUDENTS 

section page 

1 . Enrollment in Relation to Age and Grade 3 

2. The Elimination of Pupils from School 9 

3. Promotion, Retardation, and Elimination 26 

4. The Incidence of Retardation 37 

5. The Causes of Retardation and Acceleration 41 

6. The Causes of Elimination 46 

7. The Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School Grade 54 

8. The Social and Ecomonic Status of Pupils 69 

PART II 

STUDIES OF THE TEACHING STAFF 

g. The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 77 

10. The Social and Economic Status of Teachers 100 

11. The Supervision of Special Subjects 107 

1 2. The Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in the United States 113 

13. The Influence of the Sex Balance of the Teaching Staff upon High 

School Enrollment 132 

PART III 

STUDIES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS 
AND COURSES OF STUDY 

14. The Elementary School Curriculum 140 

15. Size of School as a Conditioning Factor in Secondary Education. ... 1O5 

16. The Inefficiency of College Entrance Examinations 176 

17. The Studies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 188 

vii 



viii Contents 

PART IV 

MEANS OF MEASURING EDUCATIONAL PRODUCTS 

SECTION PAGE 

18. Means of Measuring Educational Products 207 

19. School Achievement in Arithmetic 233 

20. School Achievement in Terms of Methods of Work 241 

21. School Records and Reports 250 

PART V 

SCHOOL FINANCE 

22. City School Expenditures 267 

23. Expenditures for Schools in Relation to Other Municipal Expendi- 

tures 352 

24. The Apportionment of School Funds 368 



STATISTICAL TABLES 

table page 

1. Age-grade table for Connecticut 4 

2. Table i rearranged 6 

3. Age distribution in three cities 16 

4. Age distribution for twenty-five cities 17 

5. Frequency of failures of promotion 29 

6. Failures of promotion by grades 37 

7. Failures of promotion by grades 38 

8. Failures of promotion by grades 38 

9. Failures of promotion by grades 39 

10. Accelerated and retarded pupils compared 41 

11. Accelerated and retarded pupils: hereditary relationships 44 

12. Individual differences in reasoning ability 65 

13. Monthly rentals of families of high school pupils 73 

14. Table of regrouping for comparison of grades 80 

15. Teaching efficiency in relation to experience 81 

16. Teaching efficiency in relation to experience 81 

17. Teaching efficiency in relation to experience 82 

18. Salaries of teachers of equal education according to amount of experience. . . 88 

19. Salaries of teachers of equal education according to amount of experience. . . 90 

20. Salaries of teachers of equal education according to amount of experience. . . 91 



Statistical Tables ix 

PAGE 

experience : men 95 

22. The relation of salary to experience: women 9^ 

Race and nativity of American women teachers loi 



PAGE 
TABLE 

21. The relation of salary to experience: men 95 



Parental occupation of men teachers. ^°^ 



23- 
24. 

25. Parental occupation of women teachers 1°^ 

26. Summary of tables 24 and 25 ^°^ 

27. Relation of occupation of parents of teachers to parental income 102 

^8. Relation of number of brothers and sisters to the occupation of parents of 

teachers 

29. Relation of parental income to the years of training of men teachers 103 

30. Relation of parental income to the years of training of women teachers 103 

31. Relation of parental income to beginning age for men teachers 104 

32. Relation of parental income to beginning age for women teachers 104 

33. Percentages of cities employing supervisors of special subjects 108 

34. Distribution by sex of supervisors of special subjects (1908) 109 

35. Differences in the division of responsibihty 11° 

36. Median annual salaries of supervisors of special subjects (1908) m 

37. Experience in teaching: secondary school teachers 127 

38. Salaries of pubUc and private school teachers compared 131 

39. The sex balance in high schools ^33 

40. The sex balance in high schools ^34 

41. The sex balance in high schools ^39 

42. Changes in the sex balance in high schools 142 

43. Changes in the sex balance in high schools ^43 

44. Changes in the sex balance in high schools ^43 

45. Time allotment in elementary schools: American schools 152 

46. Time allotment in elementary schools: American schools 152 

47. Time allotment for New York City: 1868, 1888, 1904 i54 

48. Time allotment for St. Louis: 1868, 1888, 1904 ^55 

49. Time allotment: English cities ^^6 

50. Time allotment: English cities ^57 

51. Time allotment: German cities ^5° 

52. Time allotment: German cities ^59 

53. Time allotment: American cities (1911) '^^° 

54. Time allotment for arithmetic and algebra 161 

55. Time allotment for arithmetic and algebra (1890 and 191 1) .- 161 

56. The order in the course of specified topics in arithmetic 162 

57. Time allotment for geography (191 1) ^^^ 

58. Time allotment for manual training {igii) ^^3 

59. Frequency of different sizes of teaching staff in American high schools. . . 168 

60. Frequency of different sizes of student body in American high schools. . . 169 

61. Relation of size of high school to public support by States 172 



Statistical Tables 



TABLE PAGE 

62. Relation of standing in entrance examination to standing in college (Senior 

year) 186 

63. Relation of standing in entrance examination to standing in college (Junior 

year) 186 

64. Relation of standing in entrance examination to standing in college (Sopho- 

more year) 187 

65. Relation of standing in entrance examination to standing in college (Fresh- 

man year) 187 

66. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Bowdoin) igo 

67. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Columbia) 191 

68. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Cornell) 192 

69. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Harvard) 193 

70. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Princeton) 194 

71. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Stanford) 195 

72. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Wellesley) 196 

73. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Wesleyan) 197 

74. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Williams) 198 

75. Studies actually taken for the A. B. degree (Yale) 199 

76. The frequency of specialization 201 

77. The frequency of scattering 202 

78. Preliminary tests in arithmetic 234 

79. Scores of twenty-six systems in arithmetical problems 236 

80. Scores of twenty-six systems in arithmetical computations 236 

81. The relation of achievement in arithmetic to time allotment 237 

82. The relation of achievement in arithmetic to time allotment 238 

83. The relation of achievement in arithmetic to time allotment 238 

84. The distribution of teachers' salaries 259 

85. Sample age-grade table 260 

86. Sample attendance table 261 

87. Analyzed budgets in percentages 278 

88. Itemized cost per pupil 279 

89. Itemized cost per pupil 283 

90. Itemized cost per pupil 287 

91. Itemized cost per pupil 288 

92. Variability in cost of education 293 

93. Variations among cities in the several items of the budget 296 

94. Variation among cities in the several items of the budget 297 

95. Variation among cities in the several items of the budget 297 

96. Variation among cities in the several items of the budget 300 

97. Variation among cities in the several items of the budget 301 

98. Variation among cities in the several items of the budget 303 

99. Measures of variability 313 



Statistical Tables xi 



TABLE PAGE 

loo. The relation between amount spent for salaries of janitors and for teaching 

and supervision 314 

loi. City expenditures in terms of deviations from the central tendency 321 

102. City expenditures in terms of deviations from the central tendency 322 

103. General tendencies in school budgets 325 

104. Fiscal relations 328 

105. Variations in total cost related to the amount of separate items in the 

school budget 330 

106. Fiscal relations 334 

107. Fiscal relations 334 

108. The stability of the various items of the budget 337 

109. Fiscal relations 339 

no. The salaries of teachers and the cost of living 341 

111. The salaries of teachers and the cost of living 342 

112. Fiscal relations 342 

1 13. Expense in relation to enrollment 346 

114. Analyzed city budgets 354 

115. Analyzed city budgets 358 

116. Variability in city budgets 358 

117. Variability in city budgets 359 

1 18. Variability in city budgets 360 

1 19. Variability in city budgets 360 

120. Relations of various items of city budgets 361 

121. Relations of various items of city budgets 361 

122. Relations of various items of city budgets 361 

123. Relations of various items of city budgets 362 

124. Relations of various items of city budgets 363 

125. Variability in city revenues 365 

126. Distribution of ratios of school expenses to population 366 

127. Distribution of total city expenses 367 

128. Distribution of expenses for police 367 

129. Wealth of Massachusetts counties per census child five to fifteen 373 

130. Tax rate and amount of money produced per pupil 374 

131. Valuation per census child and per school for Fairfield County, Connecti- 

cut 375 

132. Inequahties existing in the State of Missouri 376 

133. Inequalities existing in the State of California 377 

134. The tax rate necessary to produce $250 by local taxation 377 

135. A comparison of wealth, tax rate and cost of schools by counties 378 

136. The relation of the number of teachers and of children to the whole popula- 

tion 379 

137. The state apportionment in relation to enrollment 379- 



xii Statistical Tables 



TABLE PAGE 

138. The value of census apportionment on the basis of enrollment 380 

139. Various plans of apportionment 380 

140. Various plans of apportionment 381 

141. Various plans of apportionment 381 

142. Various plans of apportionment 382 

143. Apportionment on census and on teachers compared 383 

144. Apportionment on census and on teachers compared 383 



PART I 
STUDIES OF THE STUDENTS 



EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 

§ I. Enrollment in Relation to Age and Grade 

Two of the very easiest facts to observe and record about the 
pupils in any school are age and grade. If they are recorded as in 
Table i on the following page, even these simple items tell 
much about the working of the school in question. Thus, looking 
at each vertical column, one sees at once the enormous variability 
in age of those who reach the same grade or educational standard. 
In the third grade in Connecticut in 1903, children were reported 
as young as four years and as old as seventeen. To include nine 
tenths of the children in this grade, a range of five years is required. 
Over three years are required to include even three fourths of 
them. In the fourth grade, only a quarter of the children are of 
the so-called "normal" age of ten; a fifth of them are twelve or 
over; in a class of forty there will usually be one child fourteen or 
more years old and four children eight or less. In the elementary 
school, even in the lower grades, there are many adolescents, 
beginning to be moved by the instincts of adult fife. In the high 
school are many boys and girls under fifteen who, though intel- 
lectually gifted, are physically, emotionally, and in social in- 
stincts little children. 

The reader may well think through each column of this table, 
considering the practical significance of the variability of each 
grade. Grades 9-13, it will be noted, are ambiguous. Grade 9 
means in some cities and towns the last grammar grade, and in 
others the first high-school grade; grade 10 means a combination 
of the first high-school grade of some, and the second of other, 
cities; and so on for grades 11, 12, and 13. 

3 



Educational Administration 



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Enrollment in Relation to Age and Grade 5 

The variability of age within the same grade is seen more 
clearly in Table 2, in which the percentages of each grade at each 
age are given, with the extreme and infrequent ages omitted. 

One special feature of the variability shown by an age-grade 
table is the existence and amount of what has been called " retar- 
dation" — that is, of old children in early grades. If we call the 
''normal" age that a child should be in grade i, six, in grade 2, 
seven, and so on, and call children who are below this so-called 
normal age for their grade, "Retarded," then in Connecticut in 
1903 two- thirds of the children in grades 3, 4, and 5 were retarded 
a year or more. The recent agitation about such so-called retar- 
dation dates from the exploitation of this feature of the age-grade 
tables of certain cities, to which public attention was called by 
Bryan ['07] Cornman ['08] and Thorndike ['08], and which was 
later made the subject of a vigorous propaganda by Ayres ['09]. 

The next important fact shown by the age-grade table is the 
age at which pupils leave school. Looking down the "Total" 
column at the right of Table i, one sees that, beginning at eleven 
years, the number of pupils of any year-age diminishes. Supposing 
the population of the state to have been such that the number of 
children w^ho entered school was the same during each year from 
1890 to 1903, and disregarding the transfer to and from private 
schools, it appears that nearly half of the children left school 
before they were fourteen, and nearly five-sixths before they were 
sixteen. These figures would have to be corrected somewhat 
elaborately for the growth of population in the state, for the 
death rate during these ages, for the date at which the census was 
taken, for the private-school transfers and for other influences, 
before an estimate of the expectation of school Kfe for a Connec- 
ticut child could be made accurately. But they would give the 
first raw material for such an estimate, and from such enroll- 
ments distributed as to age, the first calculation of the actual age- 
retention and elimination in American cities was made in 1908. 



Educational A dministration 















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Enrollment in Relation to Age and Grade 7 

Such an age-grade table also gives the most convenient approxi- 
mate estimate of the number of children beginning school per 
year. This important fact, which we may call the educational 
birth rate, is almost never reported from direct measurements. 
The number at age 8 or the number at age 9 is found to be, over 
a series of years, a fair rough measure of it. 

Such an age-grade table gives data from which, with the aid 
of other facts, the degree of education, measured by the grade 
reached before leaving school, may be calculated for the children 
of a community. This retention to, or eUmination at, a given 
grade is, in many ways, more important than retention to, or 
elimination by, a given age. 

Looking along the horizontal row of totals, one sees that the 
numbers drop, there being about half as many in the ninth grade 
as in the seventh, and about half as many in the eleventh as in 
the ninth. If population were stationary, if repeating and skip- 
ping were each as frequent in any one grade as in all others, and 
if certain other minor conditions were fulfilled, the drop in the 
figures from one grade to the next would measure the elimination 
of pupils at that point. As will be shown later, the expectation 
that a child of any given school system will continue to any given 
grade can be calculated by a study of the age-grade table in 
connection with changes in population, the frequency of skipping 
and repeating in each grade and other facts. 

It is worth while to note that the fact recorded — of half as 
many children again in the first as in the second or third grade — 
is a common and somewhat curious feature of school statistics. 
This enormously greater reputed enrollment in grade i than in 
any other grade does not, of course, mean that half of the children 
in Connecticut did not get beyond grade i . It means in part that 
many more children repeated grade i than later grades, in part 
that almost no children skipped grade i. But it also probably 
means certain possible errors of the recording officers. The 



8 Educational Administration 

enrollment statistics of grade i are in general much less reliable 
than those of later grades. For instance, one should, when the 
frequency of non-promotion in each grade is given, be able to get 
approximately the enrollment of grade i, by adding to that of 
grade 2, the excess of repeating and the deficiency of skipping 
in grade i as compared with grade 2. But often the recorded 
enrollment is far above the result so obtained. 

Finally, an age-grade table tells something about the kind of 
pupil who is eliminated from school in an early grade. For exam- 
ple, start in Table i with the thirteen-year-olds who are in grades 
2,3,4 and 5 on the the one hand, and in grades 7, 8, 9 and 10 on 
the other. Comparing the thirteen-year-olds in grades 2,3,4 and 
5 with the fourteen-year-olds in grades 3, 4, 5 and 6, we find a 
drop to 57.2 per cent, or a difference of 43 per cent. Comparing 
the thirteen-year-olds in grades 7, 8, 9 and 10 with the fourteen- 
year-olds in grades 8, 9, 10 and 11, we find a drop to only 68.7 per 
cent, or a difference of only 31 per cent. 

Similarly between fifteen-year-olds in grades 2,3,4 and 5 and 
sixteen-year-olds in grades 3, 4, 5 and 6, there is a drop to 42.8 
per cent, or a difference of 57.2 per cent; while between fifteen- 
year-olds in grades 7, 8, 9 and 10 and sixteen-year-olds in grades 8, 
9, 10 and II there is a drop to only 59.4 per cent, or a difference 
of only 30.6 per cent. In general, at a given age the ^' retarded'^ 
pupils are much more ofteru eliminated. Further study would 
show that this means that at any age the pupils of less interest 
in, or abihty at, scholarship are more often eliminated. 



§ 2. The Elimination of Pupils from School ^ 

Introduction 

What pupils stay in school, how long they stay, what grades 
they reach, and why they leave, are questions of obvious signif- 
icance for any educational system. The facts concerning them 
decide in great measure the service performed by the system. A 
system in which laziness and stupidity eliminate pupils is better 
than one in which they are eliminated by poverty. A system 
which holds 60 out of 100 till the eighth grade is presumably 
better or more fortunate than one which holds only 20. If two 
systems keep pupils in school equally long so far as years go, and 
one of the two systems gets 15 out of 100 through the high school 
while the other gets only 5, the latter system is probably some- 
where guilty of waste. 

The facts really needed for an adequate study of these general 
questions are the educational histories of 500 to 1,000 children 
(chosen at random from the 6 to 8-year-olds) in each of 20 or 30 
communities, each of the individual histories to cover at least 
the years from 8 to 18. If these histories were studied in connec- 
tion with the characteristics of each community's educational 
endeavor, and in connection also with the economic, social, and 
intellectual environment of the individuals concerned, we could 
know exactly the general tendency of elimination in this country, 
the variabihty of different communities in respect to it, the causes 
of these variations, and at least some of the ways to keep more 
of the children and more of the worthy children in school. 

^ The text of § 2 is composed in the main of quotations from a monograph with 
the same title by E. L. Thorndike which appeared in 1908 as Bulletin No. 4, 1907, 
Whole Number 379, of the U. S. Bureau of Education. 

9 



lO 



Educational Administration 



For four years the author has been gathering and studying 
such data as he could obtain from printed reports and the like 
concerning various aspects of the general question, in the hope 
of eventually making specific studies in some cities with data of 
the desirable sort just described, and so being able to interpret 
the facts already given in print. It has proved impracticable for 
him to obtain these educational hfe histories of individuals. It 
therefore seems best to report briefly the facts at hand, in the 
hope that others may be encouraged to secure and study the 
more important individual histories. 

The facts at the basis of this report are: 

(i) Registration statistics by grade in elementary and high 
schools. 

(2) Registration statistics by age in elementary and high 
schools. 

(3) Registration statistics by grade and sex in high 
schools. 

(4) Registration statistics by age and sex in high schools. 

(5) Registration statistics by grade in colleges. 

Such facts are instructive, provided one uses them with full 
cognizance of their meaning and likelihood of error. Otherwise 
they may be seriously misleading. For example, the registration 
for grades 5 to 8 in Springfield for 1903 was as follows: 



Grade 5 1,072 

Grade 6 986 



Grade 7 799 

Grade 8 633 



This does not mean that of 1,072 pupils in the fifth grade 633 
will remain on till the eighth; for it to mean that, there must be a 
stationary school population. The eighth grade in 1903 should 
be compared not with the lower grades of 1903, but with the fifth 
grade of 1900, the sixth grade of 1901, and the seventh grade of 
1902. Doing this, we get (instead of 1,072, 986, 799, and 633) 
904, 892, 768, and 633. 



The Elimination of Pupils from School 1 1 

But these figures, though far nearer the truth, are by no means 
necessarily a true measure of the retention of the fifth grade 
pupils of 1900; for some of these 904 pupils of 1900 undoubtedly 
were held back two years in some grade and yet are staying on in 
school and will be in the eighth grade, but in 1904; conversely 
with some promoted rapidly. Also, some may have stayed out 
of school for a year or more and then reentered. Also, if 1,000 
famihes, each with a child of about 13, moved to Springfield in 
1902, the 633 of the 1903 eighth grade would not represent those 
remaining from the 904 of the 1900 fifth grade; in fact, conceiva- 
bly, not one of them might be left in school, the 633 being entirely 
composed of the children of these new families. 

In the second place, a true estimate of ehmination requires 
not only public school statistics, but also measurements of the 
interchange between public and private schools. Luckily, this 
correction is in most American cities of Httle account. 

My report for education below the colleges is based on data 
from pubHc schools only. My estimates concern the school careers 
of children entering the public schools of cities of this class. Those 
who leave to enter private schools are probably balanced by 
those who enter later grades from the parochial and other private 
schools. The interchange between pubHc and private schools 
may be, however, of varying influence in different cities, and 
unless we can estimate it accurately for each our comparison of 
individual cities will be to some extent in error. 

In the third place, if we are to make statements concerning 
individual educational systems, such as individual cities, with- 
out risk of being unjust, we need figures from enough years to 
give a result precise enough to prevent rating any one city above 
any other when in the long run it would belong below it. Data 
that give a precise notion of the general tendency of all urban 
communities together may give a very rough approximation 
for any single city. 



12 Educational Administration 

Elimination hy Ages: Results 

My study concerns 8-year-olds (i) of large cities, (2) in the 
public schools, and (3) in the case of cities where separate schools 
for the colored race are maintained, of the white children only. 
The data are, roughly, for the period from 1890 to 1900. I also 
do not count elimination by death. Such being the conditions, 
I estimate that of one hundred 8-year-olds Kving long enough, 
the number retained till any given age is as follows: 

Percentage of 8-year-olds retained 



Per- Per- 

centage, centage. 



15 years old 47 

16 years old 30 

17 years old 16.5 

18 years old 8.6 



10 years old 100 

1 1 years old 98 

1 2 years old 97 

13 years old 88 

14 years old 70 

Figure i shows the amount of elimination with respect to 
age at a glance. 

These figures give the proof of the provision in regular day 
schools for boys and girls who, in England and Germany, have 
to be at work with only scanty schooKng in special classes. 
They show the readiness of a large proportion, almost a majority, 
of parents to neglect the opportunity to withdraw their children 
at the legal age limit. They also show the very considerable 
number of the violations of the law, a number which would 
probably be somewhat increased if false reports of age were not 
present. The legal age limit has evidently a less effect than we 
have been in the habit of supposing. Its service is now to prevent 
the folly of a minority of famihes rather than to set a standard 
for the community as a whole. 

The importance of the fact that pupils stay so long and yet 
progress only to so low grades ^ has been recognized by wise 

1 For the period for which this estimate of elimination by age was made, the 
elimination by grades was estimated as such that the general tendency of Amer- 



The Elimination of Pupils from School 



13 



administrative officers. It means, of course, that many pupils 
are held back unduly, or that the work which they are given to 
do but fail to do is unsuited to them. Rapid-promotion systems, 
special classes, careful regulation of promotion, the substitution 
of industrial and trade schools or courses for the regular school, 



9) 

c 








~~" 




\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















X 


\ 



10, 



II 



15 



i6 



12 13 J4 

Age 

Fig. I . Amount of elimination with respect to age 



J7 



and the like will be used by efficient school of&cers to make reten- 
tion to a late age mean also retention to a valuable education. 
At the first sight it seems strange that so many pupils should 

ican cities of 25,000 and over was to keep in school out of 100 entering pupils (here, 
and throughout the report, unless the contrary is specially stated, " children" or 
"pupils" includes white pupils only, in cities where colored pupils are taught in 
separate schools) who lived long enough to complete the course, 90 till grade 4, 81 
till grade 5, 68 till grade 6, 54 till grade 7, 40 till the last grammar grade (usually 
the eighth, but sometimes the ninth, and rarely the seventh), 27 till the first high- 
school grade, 17 till the second, 12 till the third, and 8 till the fourth. Figure 2 
shows graphically this general tendency. 



14 



Education al A dministration 



stay in school till lo, ii, 12, 13, and 14, and so few till the fourth, 
fifth, sixth, and seventh and eighth grades. How, for instance, 
can we have 97 per cent of the 8-year-olds staying till they are 
12, but only 68 per cent of those in the second grade staying till 
the sixth grade? 
100 



80 



60 



40 



zo 






2 
Fig. 



3 4 5 6 7 Last IH. 2H. 3H. 

r a d Q Grammar 

2. Amount of elimination with respect to grade reached. 



4H. 



The main cause of this fact is that the elimination of pupils in 
any grade, but specially in the lower ones, is largely of older pupils. 
If we recall, for instance, the fact that in the sixth school grade 
in Connecticut in 1903 as many pupils were 13 or over as were 
under 12, we may understand that the 32 per cent of ehmination 
before the sixth grade could take place largely at the expense of 
children 13 or more years old. 

I have calculated what would be the grade retention if the age 
retention were 1,000 7 years old, 1,000 8 years old, 1,000 9 years 
old, 998 10 years old, 980 11 years old, 970 12 years old, 880 13 
years old, 700 14 years old, 470 15 years old, 300 16 years old, 
165 17 years old, and 86 18 years old (with the proper number 5 



The Elimination of Pupils from School 



15 



and 6 years old added), on the hypothesis that the per cents of 
children of given ages in the different grades is as found in the 
1903 Connecticut report. The resulting figures are close to those 
obtained by my own study. The study of the age retention thus 
really verifies the approximate accuracy of the results of the study 

of grade retention. 

100 



Q_ 



CD 



40 



?0 









s 
























\ 


\ 






















\ 


\ 
























\ 


\ 






















^ 


*^ 


-- 



3 4 5 

Grade 



7 Last IH. 
Grammar 



2H. 3H 



4H. 



Fig. 3. Verification of the approximate accuracy of the estimate of ehmination 
by grade reached shown in Fig. 2. The dotted line shows the retention in the 
different grades (4 to 4 H. S.) as calculated on the basis of the age retention 
stated in the text and the age-grade distribution found in Connecticut in 1903. 
The continuous line shows the retention in the different grades as stated in 
the text. 

The essential facts are given in Figure 3 and the legend be- 
neath it. 

Elimination by Ages: Methods: The Orighial Data of Age 
Populations 

Table 3 gives a sample of such data as I gathered concerning 
the number of pupils of each year-age in the public schools of 
25 cities. 



i6 



Educational Administration 



O On *+ M 00 M r^ 

0\ 00 VO t^ (M IN 00 

(N Ol <N lO ^ >0 O 



lo O O lo ■* t^ lo 

re OO lO •+ f-. O CO 
vO »0 O ^O O O ^ 



ro 00 vO 1/1 
OvOOOOOOO 



M M C4 N 



O CO T 



r~ vo ^ vo 00 vO t~- 
H ■* \0 O 00 "* i^i 
t^ VO 00 o o o> o 





vO 


„ 





r^ 


,^ 


a 03 


o 


^ 


r^ 


m 


-N 


n 


r^ 










O 


r/T 






^ 






CO 




Ov 


^ 


00 


t^ 


00 


r^ 




O lo 


o\ 


M 


^ 




t^ 






CO 


^0 


ro 


^ 


■* 


CO lO 


cs 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 




\o 


„ 


a 


on 


rf 


00 


o 


o 


o> 


r^ 


>/-) 


Tt 








1-^ 


















CO 




t-- 












r^ 














































iri 


lO 


\n 


lO 


lO 


m t^ 


CO 


^ 


-* 


't 


't 


^ 


'^ V 



lO O OO Ov 



lo 00 
t- O 



00 1-1 ro lO 

O CO c/: ro 

^l "t '■^ o. 

vO O O 00 



■* 00 0> CO CO 



lO vo vO VO t^ 



vo "O O t^ 



00 CO O O CN 00 
>0 ■;{- 1-^ VO ^- M 

lO »/1 lO lO VO O 



vO O O 00 



O CO >0 lo 



O O CO OO On W O 
lO vO vo ^o" o" l^ t-^ 



O vO vo OO 



g' ^ 



o oono •• o>onct. o 

pOOOO OnCcO«300 O 
.EhmhChhi^m 



o-ovono>oooo 

OOOJOOOO OiOOOn 



The Elimination of Pupils from School 



17 



Table 4 gives the facts for ages of 10 and over in percentages 
on the number of 7, 8, and 9-year-olds divided by 3, which is 
practically the same as the number of 8-year-olds, a single set 
of such percentages being calculated from all the records together 
for any city. 

TABLE 4 
The Per Cents Which the io- Year-Olds, ii -Year-Olds, etc., in School, are of the NtrMBER 
OF 8-Year-Olds Approximately, by Giving the Per Cents Which They are of 
THE Sum of the 7, 8, and q-Year-Olds Divided by 3. (25 Cities) 



Baltimore. 
Boston. . . , 



Cleveland. 



Chicago 

Columbus, Ohio. 

Dayton 

Denver 



Fitchburg. . . . 
Grand Rapids. 



Jersey City 

Johnstown 

Kansas City, Kans. 
Kansas City, Mo. . 

Little Rock 

Los Angeles 

Louisville 

Minneapolis 



Newark 

New Orleans 

Omaha 

Springfield, Mass. 



St. Joseph. 
St. Paul. . . 
Toledo. . . , 
Troy 



Age 



Years reported 



1897. 1898. 1901 

1894, 1896, 1897 
1903. 

189s, 1896, 1897 

1898, 1900, igoi 

1902,1904 . . . 

1900, 1901 

1899, 1902 

1900, 1901 

1897,1898, 1899 

1900, 1901. 
1901 

1899, 1901, 1903 
1904. 

1897, 1898, 1899 
1903 

1900, 1901 

1900, 1901 

1895, 1896 

1899, 1900, 1901 

1896, 189S 

1898. 1900. 1902 
1904. 

1901. 1902. 1903 

1901, 1902 

1898, 1899 

1899, 1900, 1901 

1902, 1903. 

1891, 1892 

1893 

1894, 1899 

1891, 189s, 1896 



Medians 98.7 



93-3 



90.4 
98.3 
97-2 
98.7 

84.4 
102.0 

97 

107.0 
106.4 
102. 1 
101.6 
101.4 

93-5 



94 -O 
99-3 
89.8 
91.0 

11-5 
87.4 
85.3 
12.0 



96.4 
93-4 



83.5 
88.5 
91.2 
91.8 

86.7 
95.6 

90.0 
99-7 

loi.s 
92.4 

100. o 
91.9 
80.9 
91.8 

83.8 
88.3 
79-7 
88.9 

92. 5 
73.7 
74-6 
92.5 



91.2 



91-3 
93-6 



83.4 



79.8 
91.7 
88.9 
90.4 

84.4 
94.2 

89.1 

86.6 
99.1 
91. 1 
95-4 
89.8 
85.3 
91 .0 

80.4 
84.6 
81.8 
87.0 

78.1 

74-2 

76.3 

100. o 



73-4 



79.0 



14 



.■50.9 
72.4 



54.0 



65.3 
73-1 
64.7 
73.8 

51-5 
85.3 

5S-0 
62.8 
74-9 
71.0 
77.3 
67.9 
53.6 
70.0 

35-7 

^51-3 

59.2 

76.3 

56.4 
54.3 
58.8 
63.9 



63.9 



31.6 
SO. 3 



29-3 



42.6 



16 



16. 1 
31.6 



16.4 



19.7 
35 

25.2 
44 

29.2 

42.7 

13.0 
19.1 
38.4 
38.3 
36.7 
31.8 
19.3 
39-5 

10.4 

ai3.4 

27.2 

39-0 



26.2 
21. 5 



26. 



S.o 
17-5 



18 



21.4 
17.6 
28.9 

14.6 
21.5 

4-5 
9.2 
25-5 
24.1 
16.6 
19.2 
12.7 
19.8 



5.2 
a8.2 
14.7 

24.1 



10.3 
10.8 
12.6 



6.2 
14.6 



6.3 
12.8 
13.6 

8.2 
10. 1 

6.9 
11-3 

2.8 
a3.4 

6.6 
14-5 



7-7 
4.1 
7.6 



19 



i.o 



^•9 
8.1 



0.8 
2.3 
4.8 
5 -3 

2-3 

8.9 
2.8 
5.0 

1.6 

32.3 
2.8 
6.9 



3-4 
1.7 
4.8 



a Approximate 

The Reliability of Age Data from a Few Years as Representative 
of the General Tendencies of Cities 
The general tendency of a city as shown in a long series of 
years is of course only approximately represented by the figures 
of Table 4 calculated from only a few years' statistics. 



1 8 Educational Administration 

The closeness of the approximation can be calculated by well 
known formulae based on the theory of probability. I have, to 
this end, calculated the percentages of lo, ii, 12, etc., year-olds 

on ^-^ for each year's record from Springfield (five 

o 
years), Minneapolis (four years), Cleveland (eight years), and 
Dayton (two years) ; and, from these individual-year percentages, 
have calculated the probable closeness of the approximation for 
a record from one year only, for a record from two years, etc. 
The chances are even that the results obtained for lo-y ear-olds 
will not diverge from the true per cents by more than — 

1.7 per cent of the per cent obtained, one year's records being used. 
1.2 per cent of the per cent obtained, two years' records being used, 
i.o per cent of the per cent obtained, three years' records being used. 

.8 per cent of the per cent obtained, four years' records being used. 

.8 per cent of the per cent obtained, five years' records being used. 

For other ages the corresponding figures are obtained by divid- 
ing a given constant, computed for each age, by the square root of 
the number of years' records used. The value of the constant 
for each age is as follows : 

Value of Value of 

constant constant 



I i-year-olds 1.9 

1 2-year-olds 2.6 

13-year-olds 3.5 

14-year-olds 4.1 



15-year-olds 4.8 

16-year-olds 5.3 

1 7-year-olds 5.7 



To get the figures such that the chances are 99 to i against 
greater divergence, multiply the figures for even chances by 3?^. 

For example, the obtained result from Denver for 16-year-olds 
is 44.1 calculated from five years' records. The chances are even 
that the true per cent for Denver 16-year-olds will not diverge 

from 44.1 by more than 77- per cent of 44.1, or i.i. That is, 



The Elimination of Pupils from School 



19 



the chances are even that the true per cent will lie between 43 
and 45.2. 

The chances are even that the medians calculated from these 
25 cities will not diverge from the medians of the entire group of 
cities from which these are a random sampling by more than the 
following per cents for the different ages: 



Per cent 

lo-year-olds o . 85 

I i-year-olds. 9 

1 2-year-olds 75 

13-year-olds 1 .35 

14-year-olds 1.8 



Per cent 

15-year-olds 1.8 

16-year-olds 1.8 

1 7-year-old3 i . i 

18-year-olds 55 

19-year-olds 3 



The Process of Estimating Actual Elimination from the Facts of 
School Age Populations 

The figures of Tables 3 and 4, obtained from the contempora- 
neous age populations, need to be viewed in the light of the fact 
that in these cities the number of children 10, or 11, or 12, years 
old is not the same as the number of 8-year-olds. Just what the 
ratios are in each city is not known, nor are the ratios for the 
cities as a group known more than approximately. An accurate 
census by year ages is needed for this. By the natural "birth-rate 
minus death-rate " increase, there are, in the entire country, for 
every 1,324 from 5 to 9, 1,175 f^^m 10 to 14, and 1,057 ^^^^ ^5 ^o 
19 (Abstract of 12th Census, p. 12); that is, 88.7 and 79.8 per cent, 
respectively. In the cities as a group, this condition holds approxi- 
mately for the 10 to 14 group, but not at all for the 15 to 19 group, 
the 1890 and the 1900 censuses giving, for the corresponding 
percentages, approximately 91 and 96. These differences are 
due to a very slight degree probably to differences between the 
urban and the general birth rate, and to a large degree to the 
fact that inter-migration of city and country children gives the 
cities more boys and girls from 10 to 14, and many more from 15 
to 19, than it removes. Individual cities vary very widely from 



20 Educational Administration 

the general tendency of the group, some cities having as many 
children lo to 14 as 5 to g, and others only 80 per cent as many. 
The variation in the ratio which the number of children 15 to 19 
bears to the number 5 to 9 is still more variable. I shall not, in 
general, try to estimate the number of children at each year age 
in each city,but shall do so only for each age group as a whole. 

Using the data given in the census reports for 1890 and 1900, 
I find that the median per cent which the ten to fourteen-year- 
olds were of the 5 to 9-year-olds in the cities of Table 4 was 94 in 
1980, and 88 in 1900. The median per cent which the 15 to 19- 
year-olds were of the 5 to 9-year-olds in these cities was 99 in 1890. 

We may then fairly take the percentages which the numbers 
of inhabitants of each age from 10 on are to the number of 7, 8, 
and 9-year-olds divided by 3 as: 

Percentage 

15 years old 90 

16 years old 92 



1 7 years old 98 

18 years old 102 



Percentage 
ID years old 96 

1 1 years old 94 

1 2 years old 92 

13 years old 90 

14 years old 89 

We might then, to get for the group the per cent of the children 
of each age that are in school, divide through the figures repre- 
senting the central tendency of cities for ages lo, ii, 12, etc., in 
order, by 0.96, 0.94, 0.92, etc., — that is, divide the 98.7 of Table 4 
by 0.96, the 91.2 by 0.94, the 88.9 by 0.92, and so on. The figures 
thus obtained would not, however, be truly significant for the 
years from 14 on, for the reason that among the 15 to 19-year- 
olds migrating to the city, very many have already been eliminated 
from school in the country, and come to the city specifically to 
work. We should have in our result a measure, not of the elimina- 
tion in cities, but of the elimination in cities plus the nature of 
the selection by cities from other localities. On the other hand, 
to take ratios based exclusively on the "birth-rate minus death- 
rate" increase, whereby the 15 to 19-year-olds are only 79.8 per 



The Elimination oj Pupils from School 



21 



cent of the 5 to 9-year-olds, would be unfair, for the reason that 
many families move to the city so that older children can have 
the advantage of the high school; moreover some of the pupils 
counted in the city school populations, especially in the late 
years, come in daily from the surrounding country. Though 
perhaps nine out of ten of the " 15 to 19 increase by immigration" 
come to the cities to work, a few come specifically to go to school. 
On the whole, in order to compare the numbers actually in 
school with the numbers that would be if every child in the cities 
who is in school at 8 years of age, kept on in school till he was 19 
(except for death), and if no one moved away from, or moved into, 
the cities, w^e may fairly balance the results of death and of 
immigration on the school age population records after 14, and 
regard the per cents with which the 98.7, 91.2, 88.9, etc., of 
Table 4 should be compared as follows: 



School expectation if no elimination existed 



Percentage 

10 years old 96 

1 1 years old 94 

1 2 years^old 92 

13 years old 90 

14 years old 90 



Percentage 

15 years old 90 

16 years old 90 

1 7 years old 90 

18 years old 90 



The percentages retained then rise from 98.7, 
and become — 



11.2, 88.9, etc. 



Percentage of 



7 + 8-^0 



Percentage 

10 years old 103 . o 

1 1 years old 97.0 

1 2 years old 97 • o 

13 years old 88 . o 

14 years old 70.0 



retained 



Percentage 

■• 47-0 



15 years old 

16 years old 30.0 

1 7 years old 16.5 

18 years old 8.6 



The absurdity of the 103 per cent is probably due to the tend- 
ency of the children to state their age as 10 if it is 9 or 11, more 



22 Educational Administration 

often than to state it as 9 if it is 8 or 10, or as 11 if it is 10 or 12; 
and perhaps to the late entry to the pubh'c schools of a few chil- 
dren. We may properly correct for this, making the percentage 

7+8+9 

of retained as follows: 

3 

7^-8-^9 

Corrected percentage of retained 

3 



Percentage 

10 years old loo . o 

1 1 years old 98 . o 

1 2 years old 97 • o 

13 years old 88 . o 

14 years old 70.0 



Percentage 

15 years old 47 o 

16 years old 30.0 

17 years old 16.5 

18 years old 8.6 



These figures represent as good an approximation to the reten- 
tion of children in city public schools, such as those listed, at the 
year 1900, as I can get from the data at hand without elaborate 
hypotheses for correction. It is certainly not far from the truth 
to say that of pupils entering these city schools one-tenth leave 
before 13 years of age, one-fourth before 14, one-half before 15, 
two-thirds before 16, and five-sixths before 17. 

The reader will understand that these figures for cities may be 
much too high for the country at large. Even in Connecticut, a 
State fortunate in its means of education, the corresponding 
figures ^ are — 



Percentage 

10 years old 99-5 

1 1 years old 94 . o 

12 years old 94 • o 

13 years old 91.0 

14 years old 57.0 



Percentage 

1 5 years old 32.0 

16 years old 19.0 

1 7 years old 11. o 

18 years old 6.0 



The Variability Among Cities with Respect to Elimination by Age 
The student who is desirous of a strict account of the variabil- 

^ From the 1903 report of the State Board of Education, pp. 184-185, reduced to 
per cents of the number of 8-year-olds and corrected by the population statistics of 
the census of 1900. 



The Elimination of Pupils from School 



23 



ity of cities in respect to elimination by age may, by using the 
data given by Thorndike ['08, Tables 17 and 19], and such other 
data as he may secure from city reports, correct each city's 
school population statistics separately and then compare them. 
I shall do this only for three high and three low ranking cities 
and without attempt at perfect precision. 

The age population percentages for Cleveland,^ Jersey City, 
and Newark schools, as given in Table 4, are: — 



Cleveland.. . 
Jersey City . 
Newark 

Average ' 
Median 



Per ct. 
93.3 
97 o 
94 -o 



94.8 
94 -o 



II 



Per ct. 

82.3 
91 .0 
83.8 



85.7 
83.8 



Per ct. 
83.4 
89.0 
80.4 



84-3 
83.4 



13 



Per ct. 
73-4 
76.2 
59-7 



69.8 
73-4 



Per ct. 

54-0 
55-0 
35-7 



48.2 
54 o 



15 



Per ct. 
29-3 
33-7 
18.7 



27.2 
29-3 



16 



17 



Per ct. Per ct. 

16.4 10. I 

13.0 4-5 

10.4 5.2 



13.3 
I3-0 



6.6 
5-2 



18 

Per ct. 



a Approximate 

Those for Denver, Grand Rapids, and Springfield are: — 


CITY 


AGE 




10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 




98.7 
102.0 
91.0 


91.8 

Hi 


90.4 
94.2 
87.0 


81.8 
85^0 


73.8 


59-9 
71.9 
S8.S 


44.1 
42.7 
390 


28.9 
21.5 

24.1 


18.0 


Grand Rapids 

Springfield 


18.0 
13 6 






Average 


97.2 
98.7 


92.1 
91.8 


90-5 
90.4 


86.7 
85.0 


III 


63.4 
59-9 


41.9 
42.7 


24.8 


IS. 4 
14.6 









The question is as to how far these extreme individual differ- 
ences are due to differences in the rate of growth of the cities, 
and how far they are due to real differences in the educational 
character of the cities. The percentages which the number 10 
to 14 and the number 15 to 19 are to the number 5 to 9 for those 
cities are: 



1 Baltimore makes a lower record than Cleveland, but as this may be due in large 
measure to the colored population it seemed better not to include it. 



24 



Educational Administration 





AGE 


CITY 


AGE 




:d-i4 


15-19 


10-14 


15-19 


Cleveland 


86.5 
84.2 
85.4 


Sg.o 




88.4 
89.1 

86.1 


88 


Jersey City 






Newark. 


Springfield 


90.0 






Average 


85-4 
85.4 


86.0 
86.0 


87.9 
88.4 


89.3 
90.0 


Median 


Median. . . 







It thus appears that the superiority of the record by age popu- 
lations of the second group of cities is in a shght degree due to the 
fact that they have more children 10 to 18 to draw from, approxi- 
mately 4 per cent more. If the age populations of the former 
group are multipKed each by 1.04, this disadvantage is removed. 
The difference thus made is very slight. 

It is also true that Newark and Cleveland have flourishing 
private schools, which take from the public schools more old 
pupils than they return in exchange, and which eliminate a very 
small percentage of their pupils compared with the public school 
per cents. Springfield, Grand Rapids, and Denver do not have 
private schools of anywhere nearly so great influence on school 
attendance. Moreover, these latter cities probably gain more 
from the registration of out-of-town pupils in the high schools 
than do Jersey City and Newark. A Hberal allowance for all 
these influences and others, except the nature of the pupils and 
of the school systems themselves, will be made by multiplying 
the figures for the former group by: 



10 years old i 

11 years old i 

1 2 years old i 

13 years old i 

14 years old i 



Multi- 
plier 

04 



Multi- 
plier 

15 years old i . 08 

16 years old i . lo 

1 7 years old i . i8 

18 vears old i . 20 



We have then the following: 



The Elimination of Pupils from School 



25 



Ave 


RAGE 


Mi 


.DIAN 


Cleve- 


Denver, 


Cleve- 


Denver, 


land, etc. 


etc. 


land, etc. 


etc. 


99 


97 


98 


99 


89 


92 


87 


92 


89 


91 


88 


90 


73 


87 


77 


85 


51 


79 


57 


76 


29 


63 


32 


60 


14-5 


42.0 


14-3 


42.7 


7-8 


24.8 


6.1 


24.1 


4.8 


154 


3.4 


14.6 



10 years 

11 years 

12 years 

13 years 

14 years 

15 years 

16 years 

17 years 

18 years 



The cities in the second list, after this allowance, still keep one 
and a half times as many to the age of 14, twice as many to 15, 
three times as many to 16, and three and a half times as many to 
17 and 18. 



§ 3- Promotion, Retardation, and Eli^hnation ^ 

It is, or should be, well known that in every administrative 
educational unit such as a city school system or a private secon- 
dary school, the fractions of the total course nominally to be 
completed in equal times, — for example, the '' grades" of the 
elementary school, or the 'years" of the secondary school, — 
may actually require unequal periods. This requirement of 
unequal periods in a given system is disclosed by the fact that a 
large percentage of the pupils spend more time in one grade than 
in another. Nevertheless, a year, or half year, as the case may be, 
is often unwisely assumed to be the normal time for all pupils 
and all grades alike. 

It is worth while to find out the general tendency of the ele- 
mentary or secondary schools in this country in this respect. If 
there is a general tendency affecting some particular grade or 
grades, the fact is of importance for three reasons. If there is a 
general tendency such as to make the completion of, say, the 
second grade in the ''normal" unit of time a specially difficult 
task for the pupil who reaches it, it would probably be advisable 
to eliminate this tendency. Teachers, pupils, and parents would 
thereby comprehend more easily the work of the school and what 
is necessary to its satisfactory completion. If the inequality is 
not removed, its existence could at least be made known to teach- 
ers, pupils, and parents. A more precise knowledge of these 
inequalities will also help us to estimate the nature and amount 

1 For a complete account of the investigation, certain results of which are reported 
in this section, see the article by E. L. Thorndike with the same title, in "The 
Psychological Clinic, vol. Ill, pp. 232-243 and 255-265. This section quotes 
therefrom with omissions and minor alterations. 

26 



Promotion, Retardation, and Elimination 27 

of the retardation of pupils in school, and the elimination of 
pupils from school. 

I propose, therefore, to measure the extent to which the dif- 
ferent grades of the elementary and high schools are, in American 
cities in general, of unequal length. 

The most desirable material from which to calculate this 
measurement would be a sufficient number of individual educa- 
tional histories, stating accurately how long each pupil took to 
complete grade i, how long to complete grade 2, etc. Such hfe 
histories do not exist at all in published form, and only rarely in 
the written records of school officers, and could be secured in 
adequate number only at a cost for travel, time, and clerical 
assistance which is for the author prohibitive. The facts can 
be fairly well determined, however, from city school reports, 
from an examination of the not infrequent statements of the 
number of promotions by grades. This method is the one which 
I shall employ. 

By examining the reports of over one hundred cities and towns, 
covering a period of from one to five years, I have obtained 
fifteen statements from which one can infer, with fair accuracy, 
the comparative lengths of the elementary school grades for each 
city in question; and four in which the same is true for the high- 
school grades also. 

Although it is the relative length of the different grades which 
is to be measured, I shall give first the actual percentages of pupils 
who at the end of the year fail to be promoted, and would there- 
fore be compelled to repeat the work of the grade if they remained 
in school. I give them because they are original data bearing on 
the general problem of retardation, and are in some respects su- 
perior to the statistics of over-age pupils that have hitherto been 
collected. These percentages of pupils failing of promotion are 
calculated, when it is possible, directly as percentages of those 
enrolled in the grade at the end of the year, but in the case of 



28 Educational Administration 

three cities, Chicago, Kansas City, Mo., and Rochester, the best 
that could be done was to infer the enrollment at the end of the 
year according to the method shown on pages 241-243 of The 
Psychological Clinic, vol. III. The calculated proportion of 
pupils enrolled at the end of the year who failed of promotion, is 
given in Table 5. I have, in what follows, used grades 2 to 8 
rather than i to 8, because of the very great variability among 
cities in the proportion of failures in the first grade and because 
of certain eccentricities in the reports of first grade enroll- 
ments .... 

[Here follows in the original report an account of how far 
these percentages of failure on enrollments are vaKd measures of 
the inequality of the grades in length and of certain conclusions 
which can not be drawn from them.] 

There are other interesting considerations with respect to 
what these statistics of failure do not mean and do not imply. 
But it will be better to devote the remaining space to showing 
what they do mean, first, with respect to the course of study, 
second with respect to retardation, and third with respect to 
elimination. 

Fortunately, in considering these topics we can use measure- 
ments of the relative length of the grades from more cities than I 
have reported. Ayres ['09], working with recent reports, has found 
records in sixteen cities, thirteen of which are not included in my 
list. No substantial difference appears between the results from 
combining all the cities in both studies, and the results from 
either set separately, but the reliability is, of course, about one 
and four-tenths times as great. I have therefore recalculated all 
my results, after adding the thirteen cities. 

We have then as the percentages of the June enrollment which 
fail of promotion these central tendencies for the grades in order. ^ 

1 Using the average of the A and B halves of the grades of Manhattan and 
Brooklyn. 



Promotion. Retardation , and Elimination 



2Q 





>^ 


lO 


w 


(4 


g 


k3 

pq 


Fh 


< 




H 


^ 




W 




M 




g 






? 1?.:^ 






ro 00 Ov O 



M Tf w 00 






O ? 



. - 3 = 



2 ^ -^ -3 if 
ffl U U CJ w 



" J2 ^ >" 

-a ^ J -o 

c c c rt 

H^ 1^ P^ 



:>: U 



;z 8 "^ . 
- -^ o iz: 



<u C c 



b-a 



g 1) 






0) bO 






Pi s 



., ^ 2 2 o t^ : 

O ^ Ph ^ ^ O C3 

« o c O £J M -^^ 

« CA c^ H t3 



30 Educational Administration 

Grades 2 3 4 5 6 7 Last grammar iH 2H 3H 4H 

Medians 12.25 14. 14.75 16. 14.25 15. 12.5 21 20 16 5 

Promotion and the Course of Study 

It is desirable that the course of study should be stated in 
terms of objective achievement grade by grade, so that teachers 
may know what their pupils are supposed to accomplish.^ It 
would be desirable also to have this series of stages of achieve- 
ment correspond to equal time-units for the average, or better, 
the modal child, i. e. to have each grade in succession represent 
what would be a year's or half year's work for him, if all the chil- 
dren stayed to complete the course, or if elimination were random 
with respect to school abihty.^ As things are, it is desirable to 
have each grade represent a year's or a half year's work for the 
modal child who enters that grade. There is no demonstrable 
tendency in the city schools as a group to depart from the second 
standard, except in the first grade. Individual cities, of course, 
may seem to be acting unwisely in making ostensibly equal grades 
really very unequal. Before passing judgment on any city, how- 
ever, its practice over several years must be studied and all the 
circumstances determining its poHcy must be considered. The 
apparent departure of making grade 8 too short as compared with 
grades 3 to 7, may be entirely due to the greater ehmination dur- 
ing the year in grade 8 of those who, if they stayed, would fail of 
promotion. The same fact must be considered in connection 
with the apparent shortness of the third and fourth years of the 
high school, although in this case there is perhaps a real error in 

^ With allowances, of course, first for individual differences among pupils, the 
work of a grade not being required to be done by all with exactly the same degree 
of excellence; and secondly for different courses of study for different types of 
pupil. 

2 The reasons for this are economy and convenience. More rapid courses for 
more gifted pupils might well crowd the work in some semesters and relax it in 
others with still greater economy. On the other hand, slower courses might at 
times be more economical. 



Promotion, Retardation, and Elimination 31 

making the first year of the high school too hard in comparison 
with the last two. 

The first grade is probably longer for those who enter it than 
later grades are for those who enter them, although of course not 
nearly so much longer as it seems. The best practical solution 
may be, not to lessen its work, but to add an easier preparatory 
grade and admit to the first grade only the pupils who are ready 
for it— those who can reach the standard of the modal pupil in the 
normal time. 

Promotion and Retardation 
Retardation is commonly taken to mean the fact that a pupil 
is in a lower grade than he would be if he had begun school at the 
usual age and had progressed one grade each year. This raises 
certain ^difhculties in making allowance for systems which use 
seven or nine grades for the work usually done in eight, and lacks 
the objectivity and uniformity which would be gained if we could 
estabUsh certain definite amounts of achievement in terms of 
knowledge, power, skill, etc., to be expected at each age, and could 
use ''retardation" for the degree of inferiority of a child to the 
amount of achievement to be expected at his age. But until such 
standards of school progress are available, and until children are 
measured by them, we may profitably use the customary defini- 
tion of retardation. 

Accepting this definition of retardation, our figures suggest 
two facts not hitherto sufficiently emphasized. There is no sup- 
port whatever in fact for the doctrine that the retarding force is 
greater in the early than in the later grades (grade i being left 
out of the question). Indeed, the same pupil will commonly 
spend a considerably longer time in grades 6, 7, and 8 than in 
grades 2, 3, and 4. Certain pupils are not retarded in grades 
6, 7, and 8 for the sole reason that they are not there to be retarded 
--they have been eliminated. If all pupils stayed in school until 



32 Educational Administration 

twenty, and the present standards of promotion were maintained, 
retardation would be measurably greater in grades 6, 7, and 8, 
than in grades 2, 3, and 4. 

In these facts of promotion and failure there is no support 
whatever for the doctrine that retardation by non-promotion 
at the end of the year is an injustice to the pupil retarded. As a 
matter of fact, there is probably far more injustice done to the 
gifted one-seventh who are not promoted "doubly,'^ — i. e. allowed 
to complete a grade in less than a year — than is done to the one- 
seventh who fail of promotion in one year. Systems of promotion 
need to be fitted to individual differences in capacity — to be made 
more flexible — rather than to be made easier for those who now 
fail. It is of course true that teachers may exaggerate the impor- 
tance of satisfactory achievement in one grade as a prerequisite 
for success in the following grade, that they may exaggerate the 
bad effects upon the zeal of a school from treating competent and 
incompetent pupils ahke in promotion, and that they may even 
be stupidly unjust in a few cases. But with rare exceptions, 
teachers refuse promotion to a pupil only because they honestly 
think he is not fit to do the work of the next grade and that it is 
not for the common good to let him attempt it; and in a majority 
of cases they are right. Special industrial and trade schools in 
which pupils who make slow progress in the typical elementary 
schools could be given a trial at another sort of education, would 
be more to the advantage of the eleven-year-old pupils now 
found in the third grade, the twelve-year-olds in the fourth, and 
the thirteen-year-olds in the fifth grade, than such a relaxation of 
standards in the typical school as would allow the less scholarly 
children to progress in it at the speed now expected of the modal 
child. 

Promotion and Elimination 

We can estimate the number of pupils who continue to any 
given grade in two ways. What these are will be clearer, if we 



Promotion, Retardation, and Elimination 33 

take first an arbitrarily simple case and analyze it. Suppose first 
that for thirty years or so the population of a community is sta- 
tionary, that no one dies before twenty-five, that there is no 
immigration or emigration, that one hundred pupils begin school 
each year, that every one stays in school until the end of the high 
school, and that every one begins at the beginning and spends 
just one year in each grade. Then the number of pupils in each 
grade will be one hundred. Suppose that in each grade all of 
those entering it spend just two years; the number in each grade 
will be two hundred, or twice as large as the number beginning 
school in one year. Suppose that in each grade 84 per cent of 
those entering it stay just one year, and 16 per cent just two 
years. After such action has been under way long enough, the 
numbers in all the grades will still be alike, but each will be one 
hundred and sixteen, or 16 per cent larger than the number 
beginning school in any one year. 

Suppose now that of those entering each grade 84 per cent 
stay just one year and 16 per cent just two years, and also that in 
every year of the thirty years one-half of the children in the sixth 
grade in June leave school. Then we should have as the relative 
sizes of our grades in the middle of thirty year period 116, 116, 
116, 116, 116, 116, 58, 58, 58, 58, etc. The proportion which grade 
seven was of any early grade would represent the proportion of 
pupils beginning school who continue to the seventh grade, which 
is, of course, one-half. The proportion which the seventh grade 
was of the number beginning school in one year (58 per cent) would 
be an overestimate of the proportion continuing in school to the 
seventh grade, for the same reason that the process in the sixth 
grade would give 116 per cent continuing in school. What is re- 
quired is the proportion which the number beginning the seventh 
grade in one year is of the number beginning school in one 
year. This case may be generalized in the form of two laws: — 
(i) Disregarding growth of population, immigration, emigration, 



34 Educational Administration 

and death, if the rate of progress in a grade. of those entering it — ■ 
i. e. the frequency and degree of their retardation or acceleration, 
— is equal for all grades, any decrease of a later as compared with 
an earlier grade is due to elimination; and (2) Disregarding as 
before all factors save retardation and ehmination, if in any 
grade there is an excess of retardation over acceleration, the num- 
ber of those found in that grade at the beginning of one year, 
if there has been zero elimination, will be over 100 per cent of 
those beginning school in one year, and by an excess proportion- 
ate to the excess of retardation in that grade. 

It is therefore obvious that the percentage of pupils beginning 
school who are retained to any grade, cannot be measured by 
the percentage which the pupils in that grade are of the number 
beginning school in one year. If the latter figure is taken as a 
base, the other figure must be those beginning that grade in one 
year. 

If retardation is equal in all grades, then, as we have seen, the 
numbers in the grades at the beginning of the year give us, by 
their differences, the elimination (disregarding growth of popula- 
tion, etc.) . If it is unequal, we must correct for it. We have shown 
that it is approximately equal from the second grade to the third 
year of the high school inclusive, in the sense that in any June the 
proportion of pupils destined, if they stay in school, to repeat the 
grade, is for these grades in order .122, .14, .1475, .16, .1425, .15, 
.125, .21, .20, .16. But it is likely that those so destined will leave 
school before the next year's enrollment record is taken, more 
often than will those who did not fail; and it is likely that this 
excess elimination of those who fail will be greater in the higher 
grades than in the lower. 

This imphes the possible need of a second correction, for the 
excess ehmination of non-promoted over promoted pupils, and 
for the increase in this excess as we pass to later and later years. 

[Here follows, in the original report, an account of the available 



Promotion, Retardation, and Elimination 35 

facts for the calculation of the elimination of pupils who fail* 
of promotion.] 

On the whole I estimate that, of pupils failing of promotion 
in the last grammar grade, about one-third are eliminated before 
the next year's enrollment is counted; of pupils failing in the next 
to the last grammar grade, about one-fourth; of pupils in the 
sixth grade, about one-fifth; and of pupils in the fifth grade about 
one-sixth. If these estimates are fair, the failures in grade six, 
seven, and eight continue to the following year at least eight- 
tenths as often as those promoted. At all events, Mr. Ayres is 
certainly wrong in supposing that only "a few — a very few — 
pupils get to the seventh or eighth grade, fail of promotion, and 
repeat the work of the grade." ^ In Galesburg about half of the 
last grammar grade is made up of such repeaters, and in Kansas 
City about one-eighth. In Springfield about half of those failing 
repeat the grade, and in Wilhamsport four-fifths. 

[The rest of the original report is given up to an estimate of 
the elimination grade by grade from the comparison of the num- 
ber enrolled in any grade with the number beginning school in 
one year the appropriate number of years before. The errors 
made by Ayres in the use of this method are pointed out together 
with the resulting constant error in his estimates of elimination. 
I note here only the essential procedure in the method.] 

Call the number of pupils at the beginning of one year in grades 
two, three, four, and five. Pop. 2, Pop. 3, Pop. 4, and Pop. 5, 
respectively. 

Call the numbers faihng in one year, f2, f3, f4, and f5, respec- 
tively. 

Call the numbers promoted in one year, p2, p3, p4, and p5, 
respectively. 

Call the numbers skipping one of these grades in one year, 
S2, S3, S4, and S5, respectively. 

1 Ayres, Leonard P., Laggards in our Schools, p. 93. 



36 Educational Administration 

Call the numbers eliminated from school otherwise than by 
death, in the one year before reaching the grade, e2, e^, e^, and e5, 
respectively. 

Then, disregarding increase of population, death, and migration 
into and out of the school system, 

(i) Pop. 3 = p2 + £3 + S2 — S3 — es 

(2) Pop. 4 = P3 + f4 + S3 — S4 — 64 

(3) Pop. 5 = P4 + fs + S4 — S5 — 65 

Call the number beginning school in one year, A. 
Then: 



Pop. 2 

A~ 

Pop- 3 

A 
Pop. 4 



= R2, a per cent to be determined by observation 

= R3 

= R4 " " " etc. 



From the present study, we have found: 

P2 = 87.7 Pop. 2 £2 = 12.3 Pop. 2 

P3 = 86.0 Pop. 3 £3 = 14.0 Pop. 3 

P4 = 85.2 Pop. 4 £4 = 14.8 Pop. 4 

P5 = 84.0 Pop. 5 £5 = 16.0 Pop. 5 

If we assume that S2 = S3 = S4 = S5 (approximately), equations 
(i),(2) and (3) become (approximately): 

R3A = 87.7 R2 A + 14.0R3A— 63 
R4 A = 86.0 R3 A + 14.8 R4 A— 64 
R5A = 85.2 R4 A + 14.3 R5 A— 65 

Whence e3, e5 and e5 can be calculated, subject to further 
corrections for skipping, the birth and death rates,' migration 
into and out of the community concerned, public-private-school 
transfers and the hke. 



§ 4- The Incidence of Retardation 

In the previous section attention was called to the common 
opinion that the course of study was so arranged as to be specially 
likely to require two years per grade in the early grades. It was 
shown that, on the contrary, failure of promotion would, if pres- 
ent standards were maintained and if all pupils stayed in school 
to finish the elementary school, be less frequent in the lower than 
in the higher grades. 

This Dr. Blan ('ii) has verified for certain cities by a study 
of the individual educational histories of pupils as reported by 
themselves, verified from school records so far as possible. 

His facts are shown in Tables 6, 7, 8, and 9, Table 6 shows the 

frequency of non-promotion in each grade in the case of pupils 

who were known to have progressed in school to the eighth grade. 

Thus taking the top line of entries in Table 6, we read that 

of the pupils in the eighth grade of certain schools in New York 

City who had remained in the same school from the time they 

began school, 9.5 per cent had (according to their testimony) 

been held back in grade 7, 8.2 per cent had been held back in 

grade 6, 5.5 per cent in grade 5, 4.1 per cent in grade 4, and so on. 

TABLE 6^ 
Per Cents of Eighth Grade Pupils Failing of Promotion in Preceding 

Grades 



Citipq 


Grades 




7 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


I 


New York. . . . 


9-5 


8.2 


5-5 


41 


3-9 


1.6 


1.2 


Paterson 


7-9 


5-0 


4.6 


4-3 


30 


2.4 


2.6 


Elizabeth. . . . 


9.2 


2. 1 


2.1 


4.2 


4.9 


3-5 


35 


Plainfield .... 


20.0 


10.8 


10. 


5-4 


6.2 


7-7 


30.8 


East Orange . 


14.9 


7.0 


4.4 


4-4 


2.6 


0.9 


3-5 


Medians .... 


9 5 


7.0 


4.6 


4 3 


3.9 


2.4 


3 5 



37 



38 



Educational Administration 



Table 7 shows the frequency of non-promotion in each grade 
in the case of pupils known to have progressed in school to the 
seventh grade. 

Tables 8 and 9 show similarly the history of the non-promotion 
in the case of pupils found in grades 6 and 5. Throughout, non- 
promotion is for the same student more frequent^ the later the grade. 
Dr. Blan says: — 

TABLE 7 

Per Cents of Seventh Grade Pupils Failing of Promotion in the Seventh 
AND Preceding Grades 



Cities 








Grades 










7 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


I 


New York. .. 


12. 2 


8.1 


7-3 


5-8 


3-9 


2.0 


2. 2 


Paterson 


8.1 


5-3 


6.3 


4.8 


3-9 


2.9 


2.8 


Elizabeth . . . 


12.4 


4-7 


41 


2.6 


4.1 


5-7 


7-8 


Plainfield.... 


14.0 


18.4 


7.2 


6.8 


5-3 


6.3 


30.0 


East Orange . 


II. 4 


7.6 


8.9 


6.3 


2-5 


3-8 


5-1 


Medians. . . . 


12.2 


7.6 


7.2 


5-8 


3 9 


3.8 


51 



TABLE 8 

Per Cents of Sixth Grade Pupils Failing of Promotion in the Sixth 
and Preceding Grades 



Citiet; 


Grades 




6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


I 


New York 


10.2 


10.5 


7-7 


7.2 


4.9 


2.6 






Paterson 


10.3 


6.5 


4.8 


6.2 


3-2 


3-5 


Elizabeth 


12.3 


10.2 


9.8 


5-3 


3-7 


4.1 


Plainfield 


16. 1 


10.4 


8.7 


6.5 


7.0 


32.2 


East Orange 


13-8 


7-7 


4.6 


6.2 


6.2 


7.7 






Medians 


12.3 


10.2 


7-7 


62 


4 9 


4.1 



The Incidence of Retardation 



39 



TABLE 9 

Per Cents of Fifth Grade Pupils Failing in the Fifth and Preceding 

Grades 



Cities 


Grades 




5 


4 


3 


2 


I 


New York 


II . 2 


9.2 


9.6 


6.6 


50 




Paterson 


9-4 


5-9 


6.5 


5-2 


4.8 


Elizabeth. . . 


19.0 


12. 1 


10. 1 


8.1 


7.2 




Plainfield 


15-2 


13-3 


6^3 


5.7 


39-2 


East Orange 


10. 2 


7.2 


7.2 


10. 2 


8 2 






Medians 


II .2 


9.2 


7-2 


6.6 


.7.2 





''That the pupils find the lower much easier than the upper 
grades is the definite tendency as shown in the foregoing tables. 
Table 6 indicates the seventh grade with a median of 9.5 per cent 
as having been the most difficult grade for the present eighth 
grade pupils. Table 7 indicates the seventh grade again with a 
median of 12.2 per cent as the most difficult grade for the present 
seventh grade pupils. In Table 8 the sixth grade pupils show the 
largest percentages of non-promotion in their present grade. The 
progress of the fifth grade pupils according to Table 9 is impeded 
more in the fifth grade than in any of the preceding grades. 
In grades five, six, and especially seven, the chances of retarda- 
tion in the case of any given pupil are decidedly more than in any 
of the other grades. The pupil who is fortunate enough to with- 
stand the strain of the difficult seventh grade is practically offered 
the assurance of success on entrance to the comparatively easy 
graduating class. 

" Taken generally the grammar grades exert much more pres- 
sure on the pupils in the matter of retardation, than do the pri- 
mary grades. It is more than probable that, were all the ' hold- 



40 Educational Administration 

overs' in grades one through four to remain in school, the 
percentages of retardation in the upper grades would be still 
larger. 

" Tables 6 to 9 record the distribution of non-promotion in 
hundredths of the grammar grade initial starters. These pupils 
represent a selected class as compared with the children migrating 
from school to school. It is fair to suppose that, were the histories 
of these shifting pupils studied, the same progressive increase in 
grade frequency would be the characteristic tendency. 

''The records of the initial starters were obtained from the 
individual pupils in class room and were checked by a careful 
study of the individual history cards. These cards registered 
accurately the frequency of grammar grade retention. In the 
case of non-promotion in the primary grades, where the ofhcial 
records were not obtainable, errors of memory would necessitate 
some correction of the recorded percentages. Even with a gen- 
erous corrective allowance there is every reason to believe that 
the classes would still be progressively harder from the first to 
the last year of the school. At any rate the burden of proof rests 
upon those who fancy that a pupil is more likely to suffer retarda- 
tion in early than in late grades." ['11, p. 108.] 



§ 5- The Causes of Retardation and Acceleration 

Dr. C. H. Keyes ['ii] has studied the effect upon a pupil's 
rate of progress through the grades of: Age at entrance to 
school, absence, visual defects, family conditions (including 
heredity) over which the schools have httle control, and other 
influences. His study concerns the school population of a single 
city, Hartford, during recent years. Under the administrative 
arrangements of that city at that time the pupils who repeated 
one or more grades, those who neither repeated nor skipped, and 
those who skipped one or more grades, manifested the differences 
and absences of difference shown in Table lo.^ 

TABLE lo 

The Comparison of Accelerated, " Normal " and Retarded Pupils in Age 
AT Entrance to School, Etc. 



Median age at entrance to Grade i 

Per cent entering under 5)4 yrs. old 

Per cent entering over 7M yrs. old 

Average annual loss in days 

Per cent losing 4 wks. or more in some one 

year 

Per cent with defective eyes 

Per cent changing schools in the year in 

question 

Per cent from non-English speaking homes 
Average deportment ranking for 6 years . . . 
Per cent of each class in the system 



Arrests 


Normals 


Acceler- 
ates 


Honors 


6.2 


6.2 


6.4 


6.2 


5-9 
II. 4 
12.3 


5-7 

4.2 

10.2 


2-3 

9-5 
9-7 


1-4 
2.0 
6.8 


76.6 
32- 


68.4 
25- 


66.6 
14- 


45-3 
16. 


40. 
40. 
86. 

24. 


26. 

27.5 
86.6 
46. 


14- 
17- 
92. 
30. 


0. 

27. 
93- 



The influence of irregularity of attendance would be much 
clearer if measured also by the different probabilities of arrest 



^ Quoted from page 54 of Progress Through the Grades of City Schools. 

41 



42 Educational Administration 

(i) for pupils absent for different lengths of time in the year pre- 
ceding that in which they repeat a grade, (2) for pupils absent 
different lengths of time in the two years preceding, and (3) for 
pupils absent different lengths of time in the three years preced- 
ing, and so on. Dr. Keyes gives data from which the first of 
these probabilities can be approximately estimated. They are 
as follows : 

Ten thousand two hundred and fifteen year-records were 
taken, 3623 from children who at some time skipped a grade, 
3000 from children who neither skipped nor repeated, and 
3592 from children who at some time repeated a grade. 

8,910 of the 10,215 showed absences of o to 19 days 
648 " " " " " " 20 " 29 " 

303 " " " " " " 30 " 39 " 

149 " " '' " " " 40 " 49 " 

306 " " " " " " 50 days or more 

I cannot ascertain from Dr. Keyes' report how many of those 
absent o to 20 days failed of promotion that year. Of those 
absent 20-30 days, 92, or 14 per cent, failed of promotion; of 
those absent 30-40 days, 45, or 15 per cent, failed of promotion; 
of those absent 40-50 days, 20, or 14 per cent, failed; of those 
absent 50 days or more, 152, or 50 per cent, failed.^ The last 
group, of course, included many who entered the first grade and 
were withdrawn, or who were later kept out of school for a very 
large fraction of the year. Consequently its percentage is not 
directly comparable with the other percentages. 

Dr. Keyes' data also permit us to calculate similar probabili- 
ties for the class of pupils who at some time do have to repeat a 
grade. Given the kind of pupil who, at some time in his school 

^ Any prospective reader of Dr. Keyes' report should note that his Table 28, 
p. 41, is in error, by reason of a slip whereby he added in as ^^ arrests in the year^^ all 
the data for "normals" absent 20 days or more. 



The Causes of Retardation and Acceleration 43 

course, fails to meet the requirements for promotion, what effect 
has absence? For such pupils: 

1,797 cases of o- 9 days absence resulted in repetition of that year's work in 14 % of the cases 
8.=;i " " lo-iQ '■ " " " " " " " " " 20 " " " " 



8si 
231 
114 
54 
209 



19 

20-29 " 
30-39 " 
40-49 " 
50 and over 



40 
"39+" 
"37 " 
"73 " 



For such pupils, loss of 50-150 days of school is thus shown 
to increase the chance of arrest that year by 87 per cent over 
what it is for one who is absent from 20 to 50 days. Loss of 
from 20 to 50 days apparently increases the chance of arrest that 
year by 130 per cent over what it is for one who is absent o to 
20 days. 

On the whole, the effect of absence is small until very large 
amounts of absence are reached. Since these large amounts 
are very rare, absence does not by itself cause any large frac- 
tion of the retardation in Hartford, not, in my opinion, a tenth 
of it. 

Changing schools during the year about doubles the probability 
that a pupil will repeat the work of the year in question. Since, 
according to Dr. Keyes, a change of school is about eight or nine 
times as frequent as a loss of 50 or more days of attendance a 
year, the former seems a greater force in the production of retarda- 
tion. Greater still is the condition of the pupil as to heredity and 
home environment, which the school administration can hardly 
be expected to control. 

''It was found that nearly one-fourth of the 613 accelerates 
were furnished by one-fifteenth of the families represented in this 
class, and similarly that almost one-fourth of the arrests came 
from one-fourteenth of the families represented. The detailed 
results are shown in Table n: 



44 



Educational Administration 



TABLE II 
Siblings Among Accelerates and Arrests 



Accelerates 




^rrg5/5 


34 


17 pairs 


2 Brothers 


28 pairs 


56 


42 


21 pairs 


2 Sisters 


II pairs 


22 


42 


21 pairs 


Brother and Sister 


28 pairs 


56 


15 


5 trios 


2 Brothers, i Sister 


3 trios 


9 


3 


I trio 


3 Brothers 


I trio 


3 


3 


I trio 


3 Sisters 


I trio 


3 



139 Accelerates, 66 Families 



72 Families, 149 Arrests 



Thus 7.7 per cent of the famihes occasion 24.5 per cent of the 
arrests and 6.8 per cent of the famihes secure 24 per cent of the 
double promotions. On the other hand only thirty mixed con- 
tributions appear. The cases are as follows: 

Brother who gains and sister who repeats 3 cases 

Sister who gains and brother who repeats 15 " 

Brother who gains and brother who repeats 3 " 

Sister who gains and sister who repeats " 9 " 

Will any uniform course of study meet these conditions? Must 
not the programs of study in every grade present a minimum and 
a maximum schedule of work to be done? The same school 
nurture can never produce even approximately similar results 
for groups varying as widely in nature and home nurture as those 
represented by the accelerates and arrests involved in this 
study." 1 

Late entrance to school is a common cause of over-ageness, or 
retardation in the customary sense. Since those who enter early 
lose a grade no more frequently than those entering late, the 
latter obviously tend to contribute largely to the over-age pupils. 
Now late entrance is in large measure a secondary result of orig- 

^ Progress through the Grades of City Schools, p. 3of. 



The Causes of Retardation and Acceleration 45 

inal lack of scholarly ability. If the children who now begin 
grade i at seven or older were all sent at six or younger, very 
many of them would have to spend two or more years in that 
grade. Many of them are now kept out because they are not 
intellectually fit to go to school. 



§ 6. The Causes of Elimination 

By making use of the method of following the educational 
careers of individual pupils Dr. J. K. Van Denburg ['ii] was 
able to measure the actual effects of various possible causes of 
elimination in the case of a thousand pupils taken at random 
from those entering the pubKc high schools of New York City 
in February, 1906. 

He got from each pupil a record like the following: 
( I) : 

Last name First name Initial School Year of birth Month Day 

( 2)- 



(3)- 



(4)- 



Number Street Borough Number Street Borough 

From G. S. No. Borough Father's busines" Father's nationality 

(I) (2) 



What do you intend to do for a living? ] (i) Are four years of H. S. necessary? 

[ (2) Do you intend to stay in H. S. four years? 

(5) 

Older brothers or sisters Age What are they doing? 

(6) 

( 7) 

( 8) 

(9) ^ . 

Height Weight What serious illness have you had? When? 

(10) 

Do you have severe headaches? How frequently? Do you wear glasses? 

(II) 

(12) 



He got further, by visiting their residences, the rentals of the 
apartments in which they lived, in the case of about half of the 
pupils. He got, for all those who stayed in school through the 
first term of five months or long enough to have marks for scholar- 
ship given to them, the average of their marks for the first term 
(or such part of it as was the basis of the marks). He also got, 

46 



The Causes of Elimination 47 

from the four teachers who taught each pupil during the first 
term (or from so many of the four as he could), ratings of the 
pupil for Ability, Industry and Results. These quahties were de- 
fined as follows in the written instructions sent to the teachers : 

You are asked to grade the class, a list of whose members accompanies this 
sheet, according to their relative rank so far as you can judge in each of six char- 
acteristics. In order that this work may be uniform, a more detailed explanation 
of the sense in which the various terms are used is given below. 

1. Ability. Native ability apart from success or failure in any particular sub- 
ject of study. Natural brightness. 

2. Industry. Apphcation to school work whether pleasant or unpleasant. 
Determination to a.ccomplish an assigned task. Stick-to-it-iveness. 

3. Results. General efficiency. Not only undertaking a task or a line of work, 
but actually accompUshing some result in it. (This does not mean reliability or 
trustworthiness.) . . . 

The method of marking is as follows: For example, take the first column. Mark 
the boy or girl whose native ability you consider the best in the class + i- The 
pupil whose native ability you consider the poorest mark — i. In the same way 
mark the next to the naturally brightest + 2, and the next to the naturally dullest 
■ — 2. In this way grade so far as possible the entire class. When you find the plus 
and minus rankings to approach each other so closely that you are unable to dis- 
tinguish any differences, mark the remaining pupils "M." 

He then kept track of every pupil of the thousand until he or she 
left high school, graduated, or remained four years but without 
graduating. ''Left high school" means left the pubhc high 
schools of New York City without any evidence being present 
that the pupil was moving to some other city or transferring to 
a private school within it. The approximate date of each pupil's 
leaving was determined. 

We can thus answer for this group of a thousand either the 
question — "What characterizes the pupils who stay long com- 
pared with those who leave early, in respect to age at entrance, 
wealth of family, record for scholarship in the first few months, 
etc., etc.? " — or the questions — "How much longer do rich pupils 
stay than poor pupils?" "How much longer do pupils of 



48 



Educational Administration 



X Boys 

(L) 

1/5 Girls 



<dIG 
< 
17 



Yes 

No 
Blank 



-§ Yes 
cs 
<u 

^ No 

<u 

J Blank 

E Yes 

o 

J No 
a; 

^ Blank 



Fig. 4. Expectation of high-school Hfe. Median length for boys and girls; for 
children 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 years old at entrance; for children answering 
"yes," "no" and "blank" to "What serious illness have you had?" and for 
children answering "yes," "no," and "blank" to "Do you have severe head- 
aches?" Each centimeter equals one term of five months. 



American born fathers stay than pupils whose fathers were born 
in Ireland?" etc., etc. 

The former method is the one used in the main in Dr. Van 



The Causes of Elimination 



49 



o Russia 
J. Germany 
^ U.S.A. 



Ireland 



Law 



O <jy 

•^cciEngmeering 
^ o Undecided 
o §" Business 

Q-O 
(D O 
0= o 



S.b Teachinq 
•JO ^ 

^ gUndecided 
o §"StenogrcipJiy 



Yes 

No 

Undecided 



Yes 



No 



Undecided 



Fig. 5. Expectation of high-school life. Median lengths for children of Russian 
(Hebrew), American, German, or Irish born fathers; for boys reporting law, 
engineering, "undecided" or business as their chosen work, and for girls re- 
porting teaching, "undecided" and stenography; and for boys and for girls 
(boys, above; girls, below) answering "yes," "no" and "undecided" to 
the question, "Are four years of high school necessary?" 

Denburg's report, but data are there given which permit tie 
latter sort of questions to be answered. So I have computed the 
expectation of high-school Hfe according to whether or not cer- 



50 



Educational Administration 



Yes 



J. toCQ 

•^ o Undecided 

DO 
^^ 

o_ 
i2|^ ■ 

D-O 

c^^ Undecided 



Yes 



No 



7i-l7i 



IS 


17-^-27^ 


£^ 


271-37-^ 


x-- 




Jl 


37^72i 


72ii40 


c 


■MeSh 


!^?? 


^ Bottom 


?^^ 


< Ten+h 






o o 




^ OJ 






>- Top 




^ Bottom 


"§ o 


S Ten+h 


■~pE 




n ^ 




42^ 




^1 


</, Top 

t Ten+h 


^0) 


^ Bottom 


fc:^. 


S Ten+h 



J , iiii j i -' i L i l i _lj i L r _n w ni 



Fig. 6. Expectation of high-school hfe. Median lengths for boys and girls answer- 
ing "yes," "no" and "undecided" to the question, "Do you intend to stay 
in high school four years? " ; for boys and children with home rentals of $io-$2o, 
$2o-$3o, $3o-$4o, $4o-$7o and over $70 per month; and for the top and bottom 
approximate tenths in abihty, in industry and in results as estimated by 
teachers. 

tain causes are acting. The results are presented clearly to the 
eye in Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7. In all these diagrams, one centimeter 



The Causes of Elimination 



51 



Top 
^Third 

_ .t Middle 
•S -Is Third 
%^< Bottom 
j= ^ Third 



^-S'^ Middle 
.2Je -o Third 



Top 
^Thihd 



' Bottom 
Third 



Top 

^ . ThiFd 

3 Middle 
- Third 

^ Bottom 
Third 



"§ 90-100 
I 80-89 
i^ 70-79 
1 60-69 



^ 



Under 
50 



mm ii II I' II - ■ an 



Fig. 7. Expectation of high-school Hfe. Median lengths for the top, middle and 
bottom thirds in ability, industry and results as estimated by teachers, and for 
children whose first term's marks in scholarship were: — below 50, from 50 to 
59, from 60 to 69, from 70 to 79, from 80 to 89, and from 90 to 100. 

equals one term or five months. At the top and at the bottom of 
each page are scales eight centimeters long representing the 
eight terms, or four years, or forty months. Each of the lines 
between represents the median length of stay, in the New York 
public high schools, of pupils characterized by the statement at 
the left. Thus Fig. 4 shows that being a girl rather than a boy 
adds one and a third months, or eight per cent, to the expecta- 
tion of high-school life; each year that a pupil is under 14 at en- 



52 Educational Administration 

trance adds to, and each year that a pupil is over 14 at en- 
trance takes away from, his expectation of hfe, pupils 12 years 
old at entrance staying three and a half times as long as those 1 7 
years old, and nearly one and three-fourths times as long as those 
16 years old. Those who report themselves at entrance as hav- 
ing had serious illness stay longer than those who do not. 
Habitual severe headaches make no considerable difference. 
Those who wear glasses stay two-thirds of a term longer than 
those who do not. 

The diagrams tell their own story better than words. If a 
record such as Dr. Van Denburg got from these thousand pupils 
should be obtained from all the entering pupils of New York 
City's public schools, we could prophesy the length of each one's 
career as we now prophesy the temperature of a day in December, 
the daily horse-power to be got from a stream, or the length of a 
patient's illness. If we knew nothing at all of a pupil entering 
in February, 1906, save that he did enter, we could foretell that 
he had an even chance of staying three and two-fifths terms, or 1 7 
months. Know also that his father was born in Russia, and you 
can add 3 months to his expectation. Know that his father was 
born in Ireland and you can reduce his expectation to 8.8 months, 
or a little over two-fifths that of the Russian Hebrew. Know 
that a boy reports himself as intending to be a lawyer, and you 
can expect him to stay nearl}^ two and a half times as long as a 
boy who reports himself as intending to go into business. Know 
that a girl intends to be a teacher, and her expectation of high- 
school hfe is over three and a half times as long as that of a girl 
intending to be a stenographer, and two and a third times as long 
as that of a girl reporting herself as "undecided." The mere fact 
that a boy or girl regards a high school course as necessary for 
his intended work in hfe more than doubles his expectation. 
The mere fact that a pupil reports himself as expecting to com- 
plete the course gives him nearly five times as long a probable 



The Causes of Elimination 53 

stay as the pupil who expects not to complete it (4.4 times for 
boys and 5.2 times for girls). 

Such educational probabilities should be used to determine 
both the advice and the treatment given to individuals. High 
school principals should, so far as time allows, get such an initial 
record from each pupil, should use it for the time being in the 
light of Dr. Van Denburg's study, and eventually, by following 
two or three entering classes through four years, calculate the 
expectation for each factor in their own communities. 

The economic condition of the pupil is shown to be relatively 
a minor factor. The wealthiest, the poorest, and those with 
monthly rentals from $27.00 to $57.00 stay in school about equally 
long. Practically all of the common talk about the economic 
factor in elimination is thus shown to have been mere speculation 
in the case of New York high schools. Is it perhaps equally so 
in the reader's own community? 

The boy or girl who so impresses his teachers as to be ranked 
in the top tenth of the entering pupils for ability will stay four 
and a quarter times as long as the one who is so ranked in the 
bottom tenth. A rating in the top third compared with one in the 
bottom third nearly trebles (2.7 times) the probable high school 
career. An average mark of 80 or more for the first few months 
means a stay five times as long as an average mark below 50. 

These school marks and teachers' judgments of ability doubt- 
less measure the specialized ability to do well in scholarly work, 
of which interest in the high school tasks is a large component, 
rather than absolutely general ability for all life's work. Just 
how close the correlation between the two is has not been deter- 
mined. But it is positive. Consequently, though freely admit- 
ting that some really gifted pupils are ranked low and that some 
pupils whose special gifts at lesson-getting conceal their essential 
stupidity are ranked high, it is nevertheless certain that one cause 
of elimination in New York City high schools is relative lack 
of intellect. 



§ 7- The Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School 

Grade 

The pupils who are grouped together for instruction in the 
same grade, even in those schools which are administered with 
more than usual sagacity, differ greatly in abihty. If they are 
measured for abihty in arithmetic, spelHng, composition, or other 
school studies, or in such tests as a psychologist finds m.ost sig- 
nificant of general intellectual efficiency, the variation is. such 
that some pupils in the grade do four or five times as much as 
others in a given time, or do the same amount with a far smaller 
proportion of errors, or do successfully tasks which the others 
cannot master. 

It is indeed the case that some pupils in the third grade seem 
superior, in fitness to receive fourth grade education, to a ma- 
jority of those in the fourth grade, that some seem superior to a 
fair percentage of those in the fifth grade, and so on. There is 
reason to believe that the eight school grades, as administered in 
even the most progressive cities, do not even approximately 
divide the school population into eight groups, each one made up 
of pupils fit for more advanced education than those in the 
previous grade are fit for. 

One of the most significant demonstrations of this failure of 
school grading to produce a series of groups — each fairly homo- 
geneous, and, as a series, differing progressively in knowledge, 
power, or anything else significant of educational advancement — 
is given in Dr. F. G. Bonser's ''Reasoning Ability of Children of 
the 4th, 5th, and 6th Grades." ['10]. I shah quote, with com- 
ments, the essential facts of the demonstration, which will be 
found also to suggest other facts of importance in the management 
of schools. 

54 



Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School Grade 55 

Dr. Bonser measured 757 boys and girls in grades 4 A, 5B, 5 A, 
6B, and OA (B being used for the first, or lower, half-year of a 
grade; and A, for the second, or higher, half), in respect to their 
achievements in the following tests : 

Tests I and II 
I. A. Get the answers to these problems as quickly as you can. 

1. If ^ of a gallon of oil costs 9 cents, what will 7 gallons cost? 

2. John sold 4 sheep for $5 each. He kept }4 of the money and with the other >^ 
he bought lambs at $2 each. How many did he buy? 

3. A pint of water weighs a pound. What does a gallon weigh? 

4. At i2>^ cents each, how much more will 6 tablets cost than 10 pens at 5 cents 
each? 

5. At 15 cents a yard, how much will 7 feet of cloth cost? 

I. B. 

1. A man whose salary is $20 a week spends $14 a week. In how many weeks 
can he save $300? 

2. How many pencils can you buy for 50 cents at the rate of 2 for 5 cents. 

3. A man bought land for $100. He sold it for $120, gaining $5 an acre. How 
many acres were there? 

4. A man spent ^/s of his money and had $8 left. How much had he at first? 

5. The uniforms for a baseball nine cost $2.50 each. The shoes cost $2 a pair. 
What was the total cost of uniforms and shoes for the nine? 

II. A. 

1. 32 plus what number equals 36? 

2. If John had 15 cents more than he spent to-day he would have 40 cents. How 
much did he spend to-day? 

3. What number minus 7 equals 23? 

4. If James had 4 times as much money as George, he would have $16. How 
much money has George? 

5. What number added to 16 gives a number 4 less than 27? 

II. B. 

1. What number subtracted 12 times from 30 will leave a remainder of 6? 

2. If a train travels half a mile in a minute, what is its rate per hour? 

3. What number minus 16 equals 20? 



56 Educational Administration 

4. What number doubled equals 2 times 3? 

5. If 7 multiplied by some number equals 63, what is the number? 

In the original blanks, immediately following each problem, 
space was left for its solution. 

Controlled Association 

For controlled association, three types of tests were used. 
First, two sets of ten sentences each. III, A, a and b, were given 
with a significant word omitted from each to be filled in by the 
pupil. Second, two sets of ten sentences each. III, B, a and b, 
were given in each of which two significant words were placed, 
one above the other, one giving a correct meaning to the sentence, 
the other an erroneous meaning, the pupil to draw a line through 
the wrong word leaving the sentence so that it would read cor- 
rectly. Third, three sets of twenty words each, IV, A, B, and C, 
were given to pupils, they to write beside each respective word a 
word just its opposite in meaning — the familiar "opposites" test. 

Tests III and IV 

III. A. a. Complete the following sentences as quickly as you 
can by filling the blank spaces with appropriate words: 

1. always comes in the last week in December. * 

2. A is one who plays a musical instrument. 

3. The city is in Russia. 

4. are large, visible bodies of watery vapor floating about in the 

air. 

5. used for building houses are made of clay. 

6. The machine used on a railroad for drawing cars is an . 

7. is the most useful metal for blacksmiths. 

8. live and swim about in the water. 

9. Most light, summer clothing is made of goods. 

10. is a holiday. 

III. A. b. 



1. The flesh of cattle used for food is called 

2. The months are June, July and August. 



Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School Grade 57 

The makes it light during the day, 

catch many mice and birds. 

A — is a large stream of water flowing through the land. 



Men who live in the country and till the soil are called 

is a mineral which we burn. 

The Ocean is east of the United States. 

sell sugar, vegetables and other foods. 

There are hours in half a day. 



III. B. a. As quickly as you can, make these sentences correct 
by drawing a line through the wrong word where two words occur, 
one above the other: 

shorter ... 

1. Days are , ^ in summer than in winter. 

up 

2. Water always flows , hill. 

more 

3. Glass breaks , ^ easily than tin. 

4. The sun rises " in January than in July. 

later 

harder 

5. Iron is r. than wood. 

warmer 

6. It is ,1 in Florida than m Maine. 

heavier 

7. Anything that floats is i:„U{^gj. than water. 

more 

8. Oranges grow , satisfactorily in California than in New Jersey. 

shorter 

9. Shadows are , m summer than in wmter. 

more 
ID. Plants grow , readily m warm sunshine than in the cool shade. 

III. B. b. 

stronger 

1. Men are usually i than women. 

less 

2. A pound of iron is worth than a pound of copper. 



58 



Educational Administration 



before ^, , . . , 
3,. Christmas comes ^^^^^ Thanksgivmg day. 

warmer 
4. Cotton clothing is ^^^^^^ than wool. 

Less 



5. More 



coal is used in summer than in winter. 



poorer 
6. Bankers are ^j^^^^^. than cab drivers. 



More 
7. Fewer 



horses than mules are used for driving purposes. 



8. There are r teachers than preachers. 

more , , 

9. Oranges are ^^^^ sweet than lemons. 

10. More 



Less 



bread than cake is eaten in tliis city. 



IV. As quickly as you can, write beside each of these words a 
word that means exactly its opposite: 



A. 


B. 


C. 


day 


great 


bad 


asleep 


hot 


inside 


absent 


dirty 


slow 


brother 


heavy 


short 


best 


late 


Httle 


above 


first 


soft 


big 


left 


black 


backwards 


morning 


dark 


buy 


much 


sad 


come 


near 


true 


cheap 


north 


dishke 


broad 


open 


poor 


dead 


round 


well 


land 


sharp 


sorry 


country 


east 


thick 


tall 


known 


full 


son 


something 


peace 


here 


stay 


few 


less 


push 


below 


mine 


nowhere 


enemy 



Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School Grade 59 

Selective Judgment 

Two types of tests were used for selective judgment. First, 
two sets, V, A and B, of two series each of ten reasons why some 
given fact is true, some of which reasons are correct, the others in- 
correct or irrelevant, were given. The pupil was to select, by 
checking, the correct reasons. Second, there were given similarly 
two sets, VI, A and B. of three series each, of five definitions 
for a given thing or term, some of which were correct, the others 
incorrect or irrelevant. 



Tests V and VI 

V. A. The following reasons have been given to show why New 
York has become a larger city than Boston. As quickly as you 
can, place a cross like this,+ , before each reason you think a 
good one: 

1. New York is on an island. 

2. More foreigners live in New York than in Boston, 

3. New York is on a large river coming from a rich agricultural region. 

4. Mr. Rockefeller has a fine home in New York. 

5. New York has more churches than Boston. 

6. New York has better communication with the States lying to the west. 

7. New York has elevated railroads. 

8. New York is in the midst of a rich fruit and agricultural district. 

9. New York is nine or ten years older than Boston. 
10. New York has a republican governor. 

V. B. These reasons have been given to show that oak wood is 
better than pine for making furniture. Check the good reasons. 

1. Oak wood is harder than pine. 

2. Oak trees have acorns, pine trees do not. 

3. Oak wood takes a finer polish than pine. 

4. Oak trees have more beautiful leaves. 

5. Oak trees make good homes for squirrels. 

6. Pine wood will not last so long as oak. 



6o Educational Administration 

7. Pine is more easily dented and defaced than oak. 

8. When pohshed and varnished, oak is much more beautiful than pine. 

9. Pine trees are sometimes used for Christmas trees. 
10. Oak trees are easier to chmb than pine trees. 

V. C. The following reasons have been given to show why 
oranges grow better in Florida than in New Jersey. Check the 
good reasons. 

1. There are many negroes in Florida who work very cheaply. 

2. Florida has warm summer weather almost the whole year. 

3. There are no alligators in New Jersey. 

4. Florida very rarely has hard frosts. 

5. New Jersey is not so large as Florida. 

6. Florida was settled earlier than New Jersey. 

7. New Jersey grows many fine peaches. 

8. Florida has a very moist, warm climate. 

9. Florida is a word meaning the land of flowers. 
10. Florida is a popular winter resort. 

V. D. Among these reasons why horses are better than cattle 
for driving and working animals, check those which you think 
are good reasons. 

1. Horses are more intelligent than cattle. 

2. Cattle are not so tall as horses. 

3. Horses like corn, oats and hay. 

4. Horses are much more active and walk faster than cattle. 

5. Cattle are extensively used for food. 

6. Horses are much more beautiful and graceful than cattle. 

7. The skins of horses are sometimes made into gloves. 

8. Horses are more easily trained and controlled than cattle. 

9. President Roosevelt hkes to ride on horseback. 

10. Horses have more rapid and varied gaits than cattle. 



VI. A. In the following definitions, place a small cross, like 
this,+ , before those which you think are good ones, doing it as 
quickly as you can. 



Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School Grade 6i 

a. Definitions of a shoe. 

1. A portion of clothing. 

2. Something black made of leather. 

3. A protective covering for the feet, usually made of leather, having a 
firm bottom or sole and flexible upper portions, an opening for the foot being 
fastened by lacings, buttons or buckles. 

4. Something to wear on the feet. 

5. A necessary article costing from one to five or six dollars. 

b. Definitions of an island. 

1 . A piece of land out in the water. 

2. A small body of land. 

3. A body of land entirely surrounded by water. 

4. Cuba is an island. 

5. A portion of land rising above the surrounding level. 

c. Definitions of to explode. 

1. To burst suddenly with a loud noise. 

2. To knock all to pieces. 

3. To make a very loud noise. 

4. To fill the air with a tumultuous roar. 

5. To blow up. 

a. Definitions of a chair. 

1. A piece of household furniture. 

2. A movable seat with a back intended for one person. 

3. A piece of furniture on which to sit. 

4. Rocking chairs are comfortable chairs. 

5. A single seat having a back. 

b. Definitions of to write. 

1. To make marks with a pen or pencil. 

2. To make characters which stand for ideas. 

3. To use a pen or pencil. 

4. To make marks on any kind of surface with any kind of an instrument 
which will express one's ideas so that another may understand them. 

5. To write a letter. 

c. Definitions of a buggy. 

1. A buggy is black. 

2. A buggy is something to ride in. 

3. A buggy is a light, four wheeled vehicle, with or without a top or cover- 
ing, designed for carrying two or three persons. 

4. A buggy is drawn by horses. 

5. A buggy may have rubber tires. 



62 Educational Administration 

Literary Interpretation 

For literary interpretation, two stanzas of poetry, VII, A and 
B, were used, the pupil to write the meaning of each in his own 
words. These poems are taken from a third reader and a second 
reader respectively, each from a different standard series pub- 
lished within a decade of the time of these tests. 

Test VII 

VII. A. Read carefully the following stanza, then write its 
meaning in your own words. 

"This little rill, that from the springs 
Of yonder grove its current brings, 
Plays on the slope awhile, and then 
Goes prattling into groves again, 
Oft to its warbHng waters drew 
My little feet, when hfe was new." 

B. Read carefully the following stanza, then write its meaning 
in your own words: 

"Under the greenwood tree, 
Who loves to lie with me, 
And tune his merry note 
Unto the sweet bird's throat, 
Come hither, come hither, come hither; 

Here shall he see 

No enemy 
But winter and rough weather. " 

[Bonser, 'lo, pp. t^-S] 

Of the method of giving these tests, Dr. Bonser writes: "All 
of the tests were given by the writer or under his direct super- 
vision .... The greatest care was used to preserve the most 
strict uniformity in making tests and it is beheved that a high 
degree of success was attained in this. 



Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School Grade 63 

"Pupils were given the printed papers containing the questions, 
one test at a time, face downward, upon their desks. Space was 
provided upon the papers for all answers. Pupils had been di- 
rected to get pencils ready for writing before papers were distrib- 
uted. When all had received copies of the test, the children were 
told to turn the papers over and to write their names and ages 
at their last birthday at the top of the pages, but to make no 
other marks upon them until a signal to begin was given. The 
printed directions at the top of the papers were read aloud to 
the pupils and the signal to begin was at once given unless experi- 
ence had indicated a need for some additional word of explanation 
which was given before the signal to begin. . . . When the first 
pupil to finish had completed his work, in all of the tests but 
that of IV, the opposites, all turned the papers over, face down- 
ward, and they were collected. For the opposites, two minutes 
were given for each test." [Bonser, '10, pp. 9-10.] 

The test occupied two days separated by an interval. 

Scoring 

" Tests I and II. For each problem in arithmetic, a grade of 2 
was given for each correct solution. If a two-step problem, and 
one part was right, the other not, the grade given was i. No 
detraction was made for inaccuracies in operations. 

" Test III. In the filling of blanks, and the choice of words, a 
grade of i was given for each correct answer, o for each 
wrong. 

*' Test IV. For the opposites, 2 was given for the correct word, 
I when it was partly right in meaning, and o for wrong and 
omitted words. 

^^ Tests V and VI. For choice of reasons and definitions, the 
scale used was as follows, the grade in each case being the alge- 
braic sum: 



64 Educational Administration 

V. A. Numbers 3, 6, and 8, each 3 points; i, 2, 5, 7, and 9, each -i; 4 and 10, 
each -2. 

B. I, 3, 6, 7, and 8, each 2; 2, 4, 5, 9, and 10, each -2. 

C. 2, 4, and 8, each 3; 1,3, 7, 9, and 10, each -i; 5 and 6 each -2. 

D. I, 4, 6, 8, and 10, each 2; 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9, each -2. 
VI. A. a. Number 3, 7 points; 4, 2; i, -2; 2, -3; 5, -4. 

b, I, 2 points; 3, 5; 4, i; 2 and 5, each -4. 

c. I, 6 points; 5, 3; 2, 3, and 4, each -3. 
B. a. 2, 5 points; 3, i; 5, 2; i, and 4, each -4. 

b. 2, 2 points; 4, 5; 5, i; i, and 3, each -4. 

c. 2, 2 points; 3, 7; i, 4, and 5, each -3. 

'^ re5/ F7/. From o to 10 on basis of estimated merit for each 
part. 

''Test VIII. Spelling. Subtract i for each misspelled word 
from the arbitrary standard of 15 for each of the two sets of 
papers used." [Bonser, '10, pp. 16, 17.] 

When each individual is thus scored for each test, and all his 
scores are added together, the different grades overlap enormously 
as shown in Table 12. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that (except with the 
''opposite" test) the time allowed in each grade was not neces- 
sarily identical, each class being given such time as the quickest 
person in it required to- complete the test. Dr. Bonser does not 
regard the time factor as of much consequence, in view of the 
nature of the tests, but it seems probable that the lower grades 
had longer time and so are credited with somewhat better rela- 
tive scores than they would have obtained if all grades had 
been given in every test some constant time. 



Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School Grade 65 

TABLE 12 

The Frequency of Each Degree of Ability in Reasoning in the Case of 

Each Grade 



Ability 



Number of Individuals 





Grade 4 A 


Grade 5B 


Grade 5 A 


Grade 6B 


Grade 6A 


20- 29 


3 










30- 39 


7 


I 








40- 49 


6 










SO- 59 


3 


2 


3 






60- 69 


8 


I 


2 






70- 79 


8 


3 


3 


2 




80- 89 


10 


3 






I 


90- 99 


15 


3 


7 


I 


I 


100-109 


15 


4 


5 






110-119 


12 


17 


5 


5 


2 


120-129 


12 


14 


9 


3 


I 


130-139 


20 


21 


7 


8 




140-149 


20 


II 


8 


9 


3 


150-159 


12 


18 


10 


12 


5 


160-169 


8 


14 


13 


17 


5 


170-179 


6 


12 


13 


16 


II 


180-189 


4 


12 


8 


21 


10 


190-199 


3 


12 


II 


19 


8 


200-209 


3 


5 


9 


19 


II 


210-219 


2 


7 


5 


16 


13 


220-229 


I 


2 


2 


9 


13 


230-239 


2 


2 


I 


9 


14 


240-249 


I 






7 


6 


250-259 




I 




5 


5 


260-269 






2 


I 




All degrees of ability 


181 


165 


123 


179 


109 



Subject to this possible correction Table 12 reveals such facts 
as these: 

171 or 94% of the 4A pupils are above the worst pupils of the 5B grade 

162 or 90% " " " " " " 5A " 

150 or 83% " " " " " " 6B " 

143 or 79% " " " " " " 6A " 



41 or 23% of the 4A pupils are above the mid-pupil of the 5B grade 
27 or 15% " " '' " " 5A " 

13 or 7% " " " " " 6B - 

9 or 5% " " " " " 6A " 



66 Educational Administration 

The best of the 4A pupils makes a score three times as high as the worst 
pupils of the 6A. 

90% of the 6A pupils are below the best pupil of the 4A grade 
4% " " " mid-pupil 

The difference of one half grade from the next {i. e. 4A from 
5B, 5B from 5 A, 5 A from 6B, and 6B from 6A) is, on the average, 
only one-tenth of the difference between the lowest and the high- 
est pupil in any one grade. It we take the highest 109 of the 757 
pupils, only 46 of them will be in the highest of the five half 
grades; 6 of them will be in the lowest of the five, 9 will be in 
the next to lowest. 

That is, the result of the actual school grading is to pick the 
most able for the highest grade hardly four times in ten, and to 
put one out of twenty of the most able in a grade two years 
below the highest of the five. If we take the 123 who, for ability, 
should be in the middle or 5 A half grade, we find only a fourth 
of them there. 

If we drew at random 109 boys and girls from the 757 in all 
these grades to make up the 6A, this absolutely random drawing 
would differ from the 4A grade by half as much as does the 
group picked out administratively as two years in advance 
of it. 

Great variabihty within one school grade and overlapping by 
it of the grades on either side has been found in every careful test 
of the abilities of school children. Indeed I unhesitatingly assert 
that a month's test in respect to the abihty to do the specific 
intellectual work of the school course of study would show a 
similar, though perhaps not so great, variability and a similar 
overlapping. If, that is, all the 757 pupils should be tested for 
six months with 6A work, there would be many of the 4A pupils 
who would outdo many of the 6A pupils. So also, if all of the 
group were set at 4A or 5B work, many of the 6A pupils would be 



Variation Amongst Pupils of the Same School Grade 67 

inferior to many of the 4A pupils. For any intellectual task or 
combination of tasks, whether a psychologist's tests, a common- 
sense problem, or a series of school tests in history, arithmetic, 
spelling or what not, the groups got by the school's promotion sys- 
tem will be found to overlap each other enormously. When the 
task is one of amount of knowledge the overlapping will be less 
than here where power to use knowledge counts largely, but it 
will still exist, and in a degree that will surprise conventional 
believers in the sanctity of school grades as measures of scholarly 
achievement. The conventional opinions of school oihcers and 
teachers overweight the importance of the instruction given 
grade by grade. They promote unfit children because they fancy 
that these children, having had once, twice or three times over 
the supposedly valuable instruction of a given grade, must be fit 
for the next. They refuse to permit gifted children to skip grades 
because they fancy that the loss of any fraction of this supposedly 
valuable instruction must cause some grave injury or risk. Even 
the most sagacious are not wholly free from this supersti- 
tious taboo on rational judgment of children's ability by what 
they can actually do. So school gradation and promotion 
are far from being measures of intellectual merit pure and 
undefiled. 

It is not here claimed that gradation and promotion should 
be for intellectual merit alone. Physiological maturity, childish- 
ness of interests, faithful effort, and many other criteria are more 
or less defensible. The gifted pupil may be the gainer by working 
half as hard or doing the work twice as well, rather than progress- 
ing twice as fast. The pupil stupid at the tasks of the course of 
study may be better off in failing at sixth grade work than in suc- 
ceeding in third grade work. The point is that gradation and 
promotion should not pretend to he for intellectual merit when 
they are not, and should be efficiently managed consequences of 
some rational principles, not of an inheritance of superstitious 



68 Educational Administration 

prejudices bequeathed by a generation that knew nothing of the 
individual differences that characterize the human species. 

Lest any reader fancy that the great individual differences 
found within the same grades were due to age or maturity, I 
assure him that this is far from the case. Ages will be found to 
overlap as do grades, and even more. 



§ 8. The Social and Economic Status of Pupils 

This country's great contribution to educational practice is the 
pubUc high school, providing boys and girls from thirteen to 
nineteen with free education and free preparation for profes- 
sional schools, technical schools and colleges. 

That a fifth to a third of all children go to high school for at 
least a time is a sign of the economic prosperity of the country 
which permits so many children to be freed from productive labor 
for so long. But it is also found upon investigation to be a sign 
of strong intellectual interests in very many boys and girls who 
partially or entirely support themselves while continuing their 
studies, and to be a sign of a family devotion in working and 
enduring to enable a child or younger brother to stay in school, 
which is one of the noblest qualities in American life to-day. 

Teachers should not complain of the lack of "culture" and 
insufficient devotion to lesson-getting on the part of a high school 
pupil until they have learned the Hmitations of the social environ- 
ment from which he comes and the conditions under which he 
has to work. Let the reader consider the repeated drama of 
struggle and sacrifice implied in the facts as to father's occupation 
and family expense for rental in the case of a random picking of a 
thousand boys and girls who entered New York City high schools 
in February, 1906. 

There arc, amongst these fathers, as many compositors as there 
are doctors, lawyers, clergymen and teachers combined. There 
are nearly twice as many '' tailors" — that is, workers on garments. 
There are as many waiters as there are architects; as many bar- 
bers as there are civil and electrical engineers; as many janitors 
as there are dentists and editors together. 

69 



70 Educational Administration 

The policemen, carpenters, masons, plumbers, metal workers, 
painters, compositors and firemen outnumber the doctors, lawyers, 
clergymen and teachers five to one. Coachmen, street cleaners, 
elevator men, Turkish-bath attendants, watchmen and laundry 
workers send sons to the high school. Coachmen, elevator men 
and watchmen send as many as clergymen and teachers.^ 

Of the economic condition of the famiHes as shown by the rent 
paid. Dr. Van Denburg writes: 

''Our study of the rents paid by the parents of the high school 
pupils, incomplete as it is, yet furnishes some of the most surpris- 
ing information which the whole investigation has yielded. Only 
420 homes were visited out of a thousand so marked for investiga- 
tion. Lack of time and money combined to prevent a complete 
canvass. 

"The method followed in the majority of cases was to visit the 
house, explain that the investigator was making a study of rents 
and ask the actual rents paid by the tenant. In most cases the 
janitor gave the information willingly. In only a few cases was 
it necessary to pose as a prospective tenant or to visit the renting 
agent. If any errors resulted from this method it will probably 
be that in some cases the figures are too high as the 'rent asked' 
as it is known in New York often exceeds the 'rent paid' by 
actual lessees. 

"In our selection of homes to be visited certain locahties were 
selected such as, in Manhattan the middle and upper West Side, 
the lower East Side, Harlem, the lower West Side. In Brooklyn, 
Williamsburg, Flatbush, and the Park Slope, were selected. 
Home addresses were tabulated by localities and wherever a large 
number of addresses were found to come within an area of ten 
blocks or so square the rents were looked up. 

^ For a full account of the occupations of fathers and also of older brothers and 
sisters see the tables on pages 39 to 48 of Causes of Elimination of Students in the 
Public Secondary Schools of New York City, by J. K. Van Denburg, 191 1. 



The Social and Economic Status of Pupils 71 

''It was practically impossible to visit scattered homes in 
the Bronx, Coney Island section, or Staten Island or in sections 
where a half day's work would even at the expense of many car- 
fares give less than a dozen rentals as the result. 

''The rents were originally recorded in two different numbers, 
the lowest and the highest asked in the tenement, flat or apart- 
ment house. These two figures were then averaged and the rent 
recorded in our tables according to the multiple of five, which it 
most nearly approached. For example; rents from $10 to $18 
would average $14, and appear in our tables as $15. Rents $14 
to $20 would average $17 and also be recorded as $15. Thus it 
will be seen that extreme accuracy is not pretended but merely 
a trustworthy approximation of the money paid each month 
by the families under observation. 

"Rent as an indication of a family's financial condition must 
also take into consideration several points we did not have time 
to consider. For example, a family of three paying twenty dol- 
lars a month for three rooms may represent an entirely different 
financial condition from that which is shown by a family of six 
paying twenty dollars for three rooms. It is not only the rent 
itself, but the number of rooms and the number in the family 
that must be considered. 

"Any scientifically accurate study of rents as an indication 
of a family's financial responsibihty must include among other 
things : 

1. Rent actually paid. 

2. Number of rooms. 

3. Number of self-supporting (rent-paying grown children 

living at home). 

4. Number of children in school. 

5. Number of 'roomers' who sublet rooms or beds. 
"However, with all these data omitted, we can still trust our 

figures as maximum rentals very confidently, because all the 



72 Educational Administration 

five items mentioned above except No. 4 tend to lower the net 
rent and to enable a family to live in a tenement or flat where 
more rent is charged than the same family would be able to afford 
on the basis of the father's wages alone. 

''Our figures, especially those recorded as below twenty dollars 
may then be considered as erring only on the side of being too 
high, rarely if ever too low. For our purposes they may be ac- 
cepted as fairly accurate maximum figures rather than true 
averages for the homes visited." ['11, pp. ygf.] 

The essential facts found by Dr. Van Denburg appear in Table 
13, which shows at a glance the sort of homes from which the 
city's high-school pupils come. In reading the table it should be 
borne in mind that, roughly, a fifteen-dollar rental means an un- 
heated and badly ventilated space, ten feet by forty — that is, 
practically the lowest grade three or four-room tenement in the 
cheapest quarters of Manhattan or Brooklyn. A twenty-five- 
dollar rental means in Manhattan a space little or no larger, but 
not so dark, dirty, or lacking in toilet conveniences. In some 
parts of the outlying boroughs a twenty-five-dollar rental means 
half of a ten or twelve-room house or a tenement twelve feet by 
fifty. 

Such homes are the best the parents can provide for three- 
quarters of these pupils. In them there will, of course, be no 
separate room for the high-school pupil to study or sleep in. No 
money can well be spent for books. There is always work, es- 
pecially for the girls, in getting meals, " minding " younger chil- 
dren, and other household duties, for a servant is unknown in 
these homes. The bare facts of Table 13 tell to one who will 
reflect on their meaning a poignant story of appreciation and 
sacrifice. 



The Social and Economic Status of Pupils 



73 



TABLE 13 
^^ T?Ax-rTTTVQ Paying Various Amounts for Rent, 

^^^^T^^'l'^^Z'^vZ.Zl'^^i^l^^i-^^-- TO NEW YO.K P.BUC 

High Schools 



Quantity 

Approximate 

Monthly Rental 

in Dollars 

10 

15 
20 

25 
30 

35 
40 

45 
SO 
55 
60 

65 
70 

75 
80 

85 
90 

100 I 
105 ( 
no ) 

115) 
120 

125 
130 

135 
140 j. 
US ) 
ISO 



Frequency 

Numbers of 

Families per 

Thousand 

79 
367 
81 
181 
38 
79 
12 

52 
7 
14 
12 
10 

5 
2 

7 
12 

19 
12 

S 



By Coarser Grouping 



Rental 

$io-$ 25 
$30-$ 45 
$50-$ 65 
$70-$ 85 
$90-$io5 
$110 and over. 



Per Cent of FamUies 

71 
18 

4 

2 

3 

2 



PART II 
STUDIES OF THE TEACHING STAFF 



§ g. The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 

The first student of education to measure the conditions of 
efficiency in teaching, so far as the writer knows, was Dr. J. L. 
Meriam, whose monograph on Normal School Education and 
Efficiency in Teaching ['05] includes reports on the relation of 
efficiency in teaching to: (i) scholarship during the normal school 
course, (2) rank in practice teaching during that course, and (3) 
length of experience. The facts for (i) and (2) almost exclu- 
sively, and for (3) exclusively, concern teachers in elementary 
schools. I give first the facts for (i) and (2). 

Since the teachers were widely scattered and comprise the 
graduates (of '98-'o2 inclusive) from five normal schools, usable 
ratings for efficiency could not be obtained from their principals, 
superintendents and fellow teachers. 

"•Another method was taken. Principals of normal schools 
usually follow quite closely the work of their graduates. 

''The estimate of such men is probably the best available mark 
for teaching efficiency. This is the mark used in this study. 

"In selecting the individuals, the roll of classes graduating 
between 1898 and 1902, inclusive, was taken. The individuals 
were taken in order, in so far as the principal of the school had 
followed the work of the graduate sufficiently to be ready to 
estimate the efficiency of the teaching. All others were discarded." 
[Meriam, '05, p. 59.] 

The marks for scholarship and for practice teaching were both 
taken from the school records. These measures are all, as 
Dr. Meriam points out, subject to errors of opinion, but it is best 
to note first what they show when so treated as to add no new 
errors, and to discuss later whatever modifications or insecurities 
need comment. 

77 



78 Educational Administration 

Taking these marks as true measures, the following coefficients 
of correlation ^ were found : 

EflSciency in teaching with practice teaching 39 

" " psychology 37 

*' " " '' history and principles of education 28 

" " " " methods of teaching math., sci., hist., and EngHsh .29 

" " " " academic courses in math., sci., hist., and English .22 

The gross amounts of these correlations may all be too low or, 
though this is unlikely, all too high, but their mutual relations 
will not be greatly altered. The main source of error is, of course, 
the reliance upon the opinions of the principals of the normal 
schools as to the efficiency of these teachers. This source of error 
operates in two ways. First, in so far as a principal simply 
blunders, through ignorance, carelessness, or a random collection 
of prejudices, the effect is to make all the obtained correlations lower 
than they wotdd be with perfectly just ratings. Second, in so far as 
the principal is biased in his judgment of individuals' teaching 
efficiency by the impression he got from their scholarly work, or 
work in practice teaching, when they were students, the obtained 
correlation in question will be higher than it would be with per- 
fectly just ratings. 

Another source of error is that the marks, especially when given 
on a coarse scale (such as A, B, C, D, E, F, or i, 2, 3, 4, 5; or 
excellent, good, etc.) and for a single course, do not perfectly 
measure scholarship or the real abihty shown in the student's 

^ These coefficients of correlation are numbers, measuring the closeness of cor- 
respondence between a teacher's rank amongst his fellows in one of the traits listed 
and, his rank in the other trait hsted. -f-i.oo means perfect correspondence — that 
each individual occupies exactly the same relative position in the two traits; — i.oo 
means that the positions are exactly reversed, the highest individual in the one 
trait being the lowest in the other; o means a haphazard, random relation between 
the two, so that the best person in the one trait is as likely to be worst as best in 
the other. For a fuller account see the chapters on the measurement of relations in 
Thorndike's Mental and Social Measurements. 



Tlic Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 79 

practice teaching. The effect of this is to make all the obtained 
correlations lower than they would be if normal school marks 
each and all represented omniscient justice. 

The effect of random inaccuracies in the original measures upon 
correlations computed from them was not known at the time 
when Dr. Meriam did his work, so that means to calculate the 
necessary allowances were not taken by him. It is however 
probable that with perfectly just measures of all the traits the 
correlations would be: 

EflSciency in teaching with practice teaching between .35 and .60 

" psychology " .35 " .60 

" " " " history and principles of educa- 

tion " .25 " .50 

" " " " methods of teaching math., 

sci., hist., and English " .25 " .50 

" " " " academic courses in math., 

sci., hist., and Enghsh " .25 " .50 

In any case it is clear that scholarship is one contributor to 
efficiency in teaching and that it is somewhere nearly as good a 
sign of it as ability in practice teaching is. 

The Relation of Efficiency in Teaching to Length of Experience 

Five hundred and seven teachers in certain elementary schools 
in New York and Massachusetts, the length of whose teaching 
experience was known, were graded for efficiency in teaching, 
each group by the principal of the school. 

'' The ranking of the teachers of the 33 schools differed much 
in the number of groups into which the corps of teachers was 
divided. For example, one principal divided his teachers into 
a first, second and third rank. Others made 5, 8, 12 and even 22 
groups. In this last group were 22 teachers, who were thus 
arranged in perfect serial order from the most efficient teacher 
to the least efficient teacher." . . . 



8o 



Educational Administration 



To use all these together conveniently they were regrouped 
into five grades by the method shown below, in Table 14. 

''Here the principle used was that the extremes should be 
disturbed as little as possible. Thus, in an original grouping into 
10 we now have: first rank remains first rank; second and third 
become second rank; the fourth to the seventh become third rank; 
eighth and ninth become fourth rank; and the tenth become 
fifth rank." [Meriam, '05, p. 106] 



TABLE 14 
Table of Regrouping 



Original 


First 


Second 


Third 


' Fourth 


Fifth 


groups 


rank 


rank 


rank 


rank 


rank 


5 




2 


3 


4 


5 


6 




2 


3- 4 


5 


6 


7 




2 


3- 5 


6 


7 


8 




2 


3- 6 


7 


8 


9 




2-3 


4- 6 


7-8 


9 


10 




^-3 


4- 7 


8-9 


10 


II 




2-3 


4- 8 


9-10 


II 


12 




2-4 


5- S 


9-1 1 


12 


13 




2-4 


5- 9 


10-12 


13 


14 




2-4. 


5-10 


11-13 


14 


15 




2-5 


6-10 


11-14 


1=; 


18 




2-6 


7-12 


13-17 


18 


19 




2-6 


7-13 


14-18 


19 


20 




2-6 


7-14 


15-19 


20 


22 


1-2 


2>-1 


8-15 


16-20 


21-22 



"What do our data indicate as to the relation of experience to 
relative standing in teaching efficiency? We have such questions 
as these: Does the teacher's standing increase with her experience, 
i. e. do the older teachers stand foremost, or is there a certain 
amount of experience at which a teacher is in her 'prime of fife?' 
' In this study I have divided the thirty- three schools into two 
divisions: In the first division I have rearranged into five groups 
all schools already in five or more groups; in the other I have 
arranged into three groups those schools already in three or four 



The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 8i 



groups. In the former group are 387 cases; in the later, 117 cases 
— making 504 cases considered. The number of years' experience 
in teaching is given in nine groups, as follows: o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 to 
10, II to 15, 16 and over. The following table [Table 15] gives 
the distribution. The numbers at the top give the number of 
years' experience; those at the left indicate the rank of the teach- 
ers; the others show the individual cases in each. 

TABLE 15 

Teaching Efficiency in Relation to Experience 

Amount of Experience 



k 


16 + 


15 


ton 


10 to 6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


I 


Totals 


I 


9 




16 


18 




2 


I 


2 




50 


2 


16 




16 


28 


10 


6 


4 


7 


4 


91 


3 


16 




14 


51 


10 


12 


13 


10 


12 


I 139 


4 


14 




15 


18 


6 


3 


6 


5 


10 


77 


5 


5 




7 


10 




I 


2 


I 


4 


30 



Total 



60 



68 



125 



28 



24 



26 



25 



30 



387 



" When turned into percentages the entries in the above table 
give the following (Table 16): 

TABLE 16 
Amount of Experience 



Rank 
I 
2 
3 
4 
5 



16 + 

15 

' 7 



15 to II 

23.6 
23.6 
20.6 
22 . 
10. 2 



10 to 6 

14.4 

22 

40 

14 
8 



4 


3 


2 


8.3 


3-8 


8. 


25- 


154 


28. 


50. 


50. 


40. 


12. s 


23.1 


20. 


4.2 


7-7 


4- 



I 


Totals 




13. 


13-3 


23-5 


40. 


100. 36. 


33-3 


20. 


13-3 


7-5 



That is, 15 per cent of those who taught sixteen years or more 
are in the first rank; 13.3 per cent of those with one year's expe- 
rience are in the lowest rank. 

" The true standing in each group may be well seen from the 
median of each group; that is, the point which marks the dividing 
line between the better half and the poorer half in each group of 
teachers. These medians are calculated upon the series of five 



82 Educational Administration 

groups according to teaching efficiency. I omit the single case 
with o years' experience. 

i6+ II to 15 6 to 10 5 4 3 2 I Totals 

2.81 2.63 2.82 2.70 2.83 3. II 2.85 3.40 2.88 

' ' A treatment of the other 117 cases in three groups gives prac- 
tically the same results. The following (Table 17) is the table 
of distribution: 

TABLE 17 

Amount of Experience 

Rank 16+ 11 to 15 6 to 10 5 4 3 2 i o Totals 

18 9114321 38 

2 6 10 19 2 2 4 2 4 5 54 

3 3 3 9 I I I 6 I 25 

Totals 17 22 39 6 6 7 4 10 6 117 

The medians on the basis of a series of three are as follows: 

Experience i6+ n to 15 6 to lo 5 4 3 2 i o Totals 

Median rank 1.58 1.70 1.95 1.25 1.50 1.87 .2 2.66 2.10 1.88 

'' The Pearson formula for the index of correlation for the 387 
cases with the better grading gives .097. This would be much 
smaller but for the group with one year of experience. Apart from 
that group there is practically a zero correlation. It must be said, 
then, in answer to the relation between experience and teaching 
efficiency that beyond the first year of experience it is practically 
nil. After the first year the amount of experience is not an im- 
portant criterion for efficient teaching in the elementary schools. 
The importance of this fact, if it is confirmed by later researches, 
to administrators of school systems is obvious." [Meriam, '05, 
pp. 108-111, passim] 

The relation of efficiency in teaching to length of experience 
in the case of high-school teachers was studied by Thorndike ['09] 



The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 83 

using the salaries received by teachers in private schools in the 
same city under free competition as measures of their effi- 
ciency. 

The private schools of a single community presumably give 
salaries in a fairly close proportion to what they judge to be 
efficiency in teaching — that is, approximately free competition 
obtains and the salary is to some extent a measure of the teacher's 
efficiency. The closeness of the approximations will depend upon 
the extent to which the authorities of these schools are governed 
by economic rather than sentimental or idealistic considerations 
in adjusting salaries and upon the extent to which their judg- 
ments of the efficiency of teachers are correct. 

The differences in salary among teachers of the same sex in 
private secondary schools of the same community may then be 
taken as to some degree parallel to the differences in their teach- 
ing efficiency; and in so far as any two communities are alike in 
the cost of hving and the attractiveness of Hfe and in so far as 
there is competition between them for the services of teachers, 
the two may be treated as one for the purposes of this in- 
quiry. 

The data available are rather meager, and to utilize what there 
are fully would require an enormous expenditure of time. I have 
therefore studied the relation of salary to length of experience 
amongst teachers in private secondary schools in only the follow- 
ing five cases: 

Men's salaries : Private secondary schools for boys in New York 
City. 

Men's salaries: Private secondary schools for boys in Boston, 
Worcester, and Philadelphia. 

Women's salaries: Private secondary schools for girls in New 
York City. 

Women's salaries: Private secondary schools for girls in Boston 
and Cincinnati. 



84 



Educational A dministration 



Men's salaries : Private secondary schools for boys or boys and 
girls in towns of Massachusetts and Connecticut.^ 

Making the comparisons separately for each of these groups 
and then measuring the general tendency of the fact in the five 



1500 




0,1.2 



3.4,5 



6-9 10-14 

Length of Experience 



15-19 



ZO 
And Over 



Fig. 8. The relation of salary to length of experience in the case of teachers in 
private secondary schools in communities alike in the value of the dollar (to a 
teacher.) The horizontal line gives the scale for length of experience in years. 
The vertical scale is for the amount of annual salary. 



cases, we have the result shown in Figure 8, which relates the 
amount of salary to the amount of experience in teaching. So 
far as the data go, they support the hypothesis that the full effect 
of experience in teaching on efficiency in the work of a private 

^ In this case the towns are not alike in the cost of living, but as a rule the greater 
attractiveness of life in the more expensive towns is sufficient to make an approxi- 
mate balance. 



71 iC Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 85 

secondary school is reached in three years, the sHght rise from 
twenty on being probably attributable to the higher wages for 
executive work as head of a department, or to the sentiment 
which leads private school authorities to maintain or increase 
salaries after long service, even though a more efficient person 
could be obtained for a less amount. 



Z5O0 




10 15 10 

Years erf Experience 



25 



50 



Fig. 9. The relation of salary to length of experience in the case of teachers in 
public high schools. Men teachers of New York, Boston, St. Louis and Chicago. 



Unfortunately the private schools rarely sent the individuahzed 
data requisite for such a study, so that the measurement above 
made might undergo modifications of fairly large extent upon 
receipt of full information. 

Such facts as appear in Figure 8 are in sharp contrast to those 
within the public system of a large city. In the latter it is custom- 
ary to advance the salaries of those whose appointments are 
renewed, and also, though less often, to determine the amount 



86 



Educational Administration 



of the salary of a teacher entering the system from another city 
partly on the basis of the length of time he has taught. New 
York City is a notable case. 

I show in Figure 9 the relation of salary to experience obtained 
by combining the four relations found in New York, Boston, St. 
Louis and Cleveland in the case of men teachers in pubKc high 
schools. Figure 10 gives the same relation in the case of women 
teachers. The difference between the relation in these cases and 
what it is under free competition is obvious. 



1500 
^1000 

^ 

^ 500 



















^^^ 




•^--^^ 








y^' 





























10 IS ZO Z5 

Years of Experience in Teaching 



30 



35 



Fig. 10. The relation of salary to length of experience in the case of teachers in 
public high schools. Women teachers of Boston, St. Louis and Cleveland. 



It may be well to warn ourselves that even if it were true that 
experience after the first four or five years does not greatly add 
to the efficiency of a pubHc high school teacher, stiff it cannot be 
said that the customary practice in our large cities wastes money 
in paying for a false symptom of efficiency; for, even if the teach- 
ers of five years' experience equaled those of ten, it might stiff 
be wise to pay the latter more. In the first place, the salary 
schedule as a whole decides the teacher in his choice amongst 
positions. It is not a fixed $1,000 that he accepts, but $1,000 



The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 87 

plus $100 advance annually up to $2,000. The advance with time 
is really a feature in the bargain. In the second place, it may be 
wise for a city to pay its teachers what will maintain a certain 
standard of living, rather than what will just purchase the re- 
quired efficiency; and on this principle the head of a family, at 
least, should be advanced with age or with some other still more 
accurate measure of the size of his family. In the third place, 
the premium on experience has the administrative advantage of 
encouraging the adoption of teaching as a permanent profession 
and of preventing frequent changes in the local teaching staff. 
It is also free from the difficulties of competition for promotion on 
the grounds of pure merit. 

It is well, on the other hand, to note that the premium paid 
for experience may deprive a city of the best services obtainable 
for the price it has to pay, may retain the less competent too- 
surely, and may discourage the entrance to and continuance in 
the profession of that very desirable class who would prefer to 
work under a system of competitive promotion by merit. 

The Relations of Length of Experience and of Length of Educa- 
tion to Amount of Salary 

If one does not seek to restrict the localities used in the com- 
parison to those in which the same salary is equally desirable, the 
number of cases may of course be greatly increased, to such an 
extent, in fact, that the relation of salary to length of experience 
may be studied separately for teachers of each different amount 
of education. The relation of salary to the amount of education 
for teachers of each amount of experience may also be determined. 

I have so studied all the individualized reports from the public 
high schools of Ohio, Illinois and Wisconsin. It must be borne in 
mind that the large schools rarely sent in individualized reports 
and so are rarely included in these data. This is, of course, 



88 



Educational Administration 



an advantage in that it makes the data less diverse with respect 
to the cost of living and the value of life. 

The computations start with preliminary tables like the follow- 
ing (Table i8): 

TABLE i8 

Table of Frequencies of Salaries of Teachers of 8 Years Education and 
o, I, OR 2 Years of Experience in Teaching (Women in Ohio) 



Quantity | Frequency 
(Annual (Number of 
Salary) Teachers) 


Quantity Frequency 
(Annual (Number of 
Salary) Teachers) 


Quantity Ifrequency 
(Annual ] (Number of 
Salary) , Teachers) 


$399 4 

405 2 

450 II 

465 I 

475 2 

485 I 

495 4 

coo 4. 


S550 I 

560 I 

570 I 

585 I 

590 I 

600 5 

630 3 

650 I 

675 2 


S695 I 

700 I 

720 2 

750 I 

780 2 

800 5 

1,000 I 


540 8 





There are 528 such tables, but with some blanks (3 States x 2 
sexes XII lengths of education x 8 lengths of experience, namely: 
0-2, 3-5, 6-9, 10-14, 15^19? 20-24, 25-29, 30 and over). I shall 
refer to these 528 tables as the original tables. 

From a thorough study of these tables it is clear that the rela- 
tions to be investigated are substantially the same in the three 
States. I therefore combine the data from the three States. 

A study of the same tables also shows that there is no sure 
appreciable difference as regards frequency of salaries for teachers 
of o, I, 2, and 3 years of education beyond the elementary schools. 
I therefore combine the data for these four groups. The data for 
ten years of education are too few to give reliable determinations. 
Hence I omit them. 

The data for the groups of ''25-29" and "30 and over" years 



The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 89 

of experience are too few to give reliable determinations, and 
there is surely no great difference between these two groups. So 
I combine these also. 

The 98 tables resulting furnish the material for answering any 
questions about the relationship of salary to amount of experience 
and to amount of education in the case of these groups of teachers, 
and for comparisons with the status of this relationship at any 
date in the future. 

These 98 tables will be found in full in section IX of No. 404 
of the Bulletins of the United States Bureau of Education, "The 
Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in the United States," by 
Edward L. Thorndike. I give here the tables for men and women 
of four years, and of eight years, of education beyond the elemen- 
tary school. 

It is practically impossible to summarize in words the relation- 
ship between salary and length of experience, because of its com- 
plexity. 

There is no uniform tendency for a given difference in length 
of experience to be accompanied by a constant gross or percentile 
difference in salary. The upper range of salaries varies with ex- 
perience more than the average salary. The relation is different 
in the case of those of much and those of little education. There 
are other eccentricities. For an adequate measurement of the 
relation one would have to repeat every detail of the 98 tables. 
I shall state only those general facts which are of most significance 
to educational administration. These are as follows: 

The Relation of Salary to Experience in the Case of Men Teachers 

The high-school authorities in the three States under considera- 
tion pay the average male high-school teacher on the average $28 
{i. e. 4 per cent of the usual salary for the first three years of 
teaching) for each year of experience from i to 12 years, $8 a 



90 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 19 

Relations Between Salary, Amount of Education, and Extent of Ex- 
perience OF Male High-School Teachers in Ohio, Illinois, and Wisconsin 

MEN OF 4 years OF EDUCATION BEYOND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 



Salaries 



Years of Experience 



Under $400 

$400 to $499. . . . 
$500 to $599. . . . 
$600 to $699. . . , 
$700 to $799. . . , 
$800 to $899. . . , 
$900 to $999. . . . 
$1,000 to $1,099. 
$1,100 to $1,199. 
$1,200 to $1,299. 
$1,300 to $1,399. 
$1,400 to $1,499. 
$1,500 to $1,999. 
$2,000 to $2,499. 
$2,500 and over. 



3 to 5 



6 to 9 10 to 14 



15 to 19 



20 to 24 



25 and 
over 



MEN OF 8 YEARS OF EDUCATION BEYOND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 



Salaries 



Years of Experience 



Under $400 

$400 to $499. . . . 
$500 to $599. . . . 
$600 to $699. . . . 
$700 to $799. . . . 
$800 to $899. . . . 
$900 to $999. . . , 
$1,000 to $1,099, 
$1,100 to $1,199. 
$1,200 to $1,299. 
$1,300 to $1,399. 
$1,400 to $1,499. 
$1,500 to $1,999. 
$2,000 to $2,499. 
$2,500 and over. 



15 
23 
35 
22 

15 

I 

3 



3 to 5 



6 to 9 



I 
6 
15 
19 
16 
18 

23 
8 

9 

7 

3 

10 



4to/jli5 to I9!20 to 24 



3 
I 

7 
10 
12 

8 

7 
II 

5 

8 

20 

2 

I 



25 and 
over 



5 
4 
3 
13 
I 
2 







2 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


4 


I 


6 


4 


2 




2 


I 


I 




2 




II 


6 



The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 91 

TABLE 20 

Reij^tions Between Salarv, Amount of Education, and Extent of Experience of Female 

High-School Teachers in Ohio, Illinois, and Wisconsin 

WOMEN OF 4 years OF EDUCATION BEYOND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 



Salaries 






Years of Experience 








to 2 


3 to 5 


6 to 9 


10 to 14 


15 to 19 


20 to 24 


25 and 
over 


Under $400. 


2 
3 
3 
3 


2 

3 

I 
7 


I 
2 

4 
2 






I 




$4.00 to $4.4.0 


















I 


2 


I 


$ssO to $!;qq 




$600 to $649 


2 


5 


I 
I 


2 

I 

2 




2 


S6'^o to $6qq. 




S700 to $740. . . 


I 


2 


2 

I 


2 


$7^0 to $700 


I 


$800 to $849 


I 






$850 to $899 










I 
I 




$900 to $949 


I 




2 








$9^0 to $999 








$1,000 to $1,099 
















$1,100 to $1,199 






I 


I 
I 

3 

2 






$1,200 to $1,299 






2 

3 

I 
I 


6 


$1,^00 to $1,^99 








2 




$1,400 to $1,499 








I 


$I,';oo to $1,999 










6 


$2,000 and over 
























. . 







women of 8 YEARS OF EDUCATION BEYOND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 



Salaries 



Years of Experience 



Under $400 

$400 to $449. . . 
$450 to $499. . . 
$500 to $549. . . 
$550 to $599. . . 
$600 to $649. . . 
$650 to $699. . . 
$700 to $749. . . 
$750 to $799. . . . 
$800 to $849. . . , 
$850 to $899. . . . 
$900 to $949. . . . 
$950 to $999. . . , 
$1,000 to $1,099. 
$1,100 to $1,199, 
$1,200 to $1,299, 
$1,300 to $1,399, 
$1,400 to $1,499, 
$1,500 to $1,999, 
$2,000 and over. 



o to 2 



3 
9 

SO 

52 
27 

34 
16 
8 
4 
7 
I 
2 



3 to 5 



11 

29 
15 

38 

31 

28 
17 
15 

2 

3 

I 

9 

2 
2 



6 to 9 



5 
6 

14 
25 
22 
16 
19 
7 
10 

4 
6 

5 
4 
6 

2 



1 to 14 



S to 19 20 to 24 ^S^^J 



92 Educational Administration 

year for each year from 12 to 22, and little or nothing for each 
year thereafter. The superior teachers show larger differences 
with experience. The men who have had the most education 
not only are paid more at the start, but also show larger differ- 
ences with the first 10 or 15 years of experience, those with 8 
years beyond the elementary school showing differences with 
experience that are about five times as large as those of men 
with 0-3 years, over twice as large as those of men with 4-6 
years, and one and a half times as large as those of men with 7 
years. -^ The differences between the salaries of those with 10-15 
and those with 20-30 years of experience seem to be on the aver- 
age the same for those of little and those of much education. 

The Relation of Salary to Experience in the Case of Women 

Teachers 

The school authorities in the three States in question pay the 
average female high school teacher on the average $27 {i. e. 5 per 
cent of the usual salary for the first three years of teaching) for 
each year of experience from i to 22 and apparently even to 30 
or over. The superior teachers show larger differences with expe- 
rience. The women who have had the most education not only 
are paid more at the start, but also show larger differences, not 
only for the first 10 or 15 years of teaching, as with men, but 

^ The somewhat awkward form of verbal statement used here and later is neces- 
sary to avoid giving the impression that the same person would receive the advances 
and discounts described if he had the increase in experience or education or the 
decrease in the latter corresponding to the differences described. Such may be 
true, but it does not necessarily follow from our facts. For education and ex- 
perience not only alter individuals from what they were or would have been, but 
also select individuals. The teachers who have taught 20 years are a selected group 
of those who have taught 2 years and their salaries need not be equal to what the 
latter would attain if they taught 18 years longer. The teachers who studied 8 
years may be different by nature as well as by training from those who studied only 
4 years. 



The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 93 

throughout. Women with 8 years of education beyond the ele- 
mentary school show differences with experience that are five 
times as large as those of women with o to 3 years, over twice as 
large as those of women with 4-6 years, and over one and a half 
times as large as those of women with 7 years. 

The Relation of Salary to Length of Education 

It is also impossible to state the relation between salary and 
length of education adequately in words. There is again in this 
case no uniform tendency, though the eccentricities are here not 
so marked. There is also a special difficulty in that the increases 
from o to 9 years of education do not mean additions of equal 
amounts of the same thing. For instance, the group with 8 years 
of education are mostly college graduates, while the group with 
6 years of education have rarely completed two years of a college 
course. The original tables tell the whole story, certain features 
of which I shall repeat in verbal form. 

The high school authorities in the three States pay the average 
male high school teacher on the average $90 (or one-seventh of 
the usual salary for the first three years of teaching) less, if he 
is one year short of the standard 8 years; they pay him on the 
average $220 (or one-third of the usual salary for the first 3 years) 
less, if he is 3 years short of that standard; and $325 (or over half 
that salary) less, if he is 6 years short of that standard. For a 
year in addition to the standard they pay him on the average $90 
more. All these differences are smaller for those of httle experi- 
ence in teaching and greater for those of much. 

The corresponding figures for women teachers are $75, $150, 
and $275 less, for i, 3, and 6 years short of the standard 8 years, 
and $45 more for i year over that standard. These amounts are, 
respectively, one-seventh, two-sevenths, over half, and one- 
eleventh of the usual salary for the first three years of teaching. 



94 Educational Administration 

It is evident that school authorities reward the kind of man or 
woman who has secured a thorough education; and that, in so 
far as their practice is a natural selection of one means of securing 
efhcient teachers, premiums for advanced education are desirable 
in formal salary schedules. The figures indeed suggest that the 
premiums now given in such formal salary schedules are too low 
in the case of education and too high relatively in the case of 
experience in teaching. 

Neither experience in teaching nor amount of education is so 
important in determining relative salaries as the differences 
amongst teachers in other respects; that is, in native gifts and in 
the quality rather than the quantity of their education. That 
teachers of the same amount of experience and education vary 
enormously as to salaries is shown by every group recorded in the 
tables. For instance, of the men who have taught from ten to 
fourteen years and who had each 8 years education in advance of 
the elementary school, some receive four, and even five, times as 
much per year as others. 

Dr. L. D. Coffman ['ii] has measured these relations in the 
cases of a miscellaneous group made up very largely of elementary 
school teachers, from the United States as a whole. He writes: 

'' The salary paid teachers in general, particularly where free 
competition obtains, is one criterion or objective measure of their 
efficiency in general. Common observation and common sense 
teach us that in the case of numerous individuals and of certain 
communities and institutions, salaries cannot be regarded as 
true measures of efficiency. That they cannot is due: (i) to the 
operation of ideaHstic, sentimental, religious, political, blood-kin 
considerations; (2) to the unfair and unequal administration of 
municipal or commercial affairs in the distribution of moneys for 
the maintenance of the different forms of pubhc protection and 
public service; and (3) to the lack of definite standards by which 
to judge teaching efficiency. Nevertheless it seems true as a 



The Causes and Conditiojts of Efficiency in Teaching 95 

general proposition that differences in salaries in a given locality 
in either sex must be regarded as indicative of differences in 
teaching efficiency; and also differences in salaries among different 
localities, provided the communities compared have approxi- 
mately equal standards of living and are of equal wealth, and 
competition among teachers is equally free, indicate different 
community estimates of teaching efficiency. 

" No effort is made in the tables that follow to compare salaries 
in a given community or between given communities. The tables 
merely show what the general tendency is, to what extent salaries 
in general are influenced by experience. Supposing that the 
standards of living in the different places in this report do 
not differ radically, this general tendency becomes a fairly 
accurate registration of the value American people set upon 
experience. ... 



TABLE 21 
Table Showing Relation of Experience of Men Teachers to Salary 















Y 


EARS 


OF Experience 


































Il- 


13- 


15- 


20- 


25 - 


Salary 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


ia 


14 


19 


24 


+ 


$150 


5 


2 


4 








I 


I 






I 




I 








200 


5 


9 


2 


6 


2 


2 


I 






I 


I 








2 




250 


29 


12 


5 


7 


6 


3 




2 


2 


2 






3 


2 




4 


,500 


30 


13 


10 


6 


'4 


4 


5 


2 


2 


3 




3 


2 


4 


I 2 


,^50 


13 


20 


14 


12 


14 


14 


8 


2 


5 


9 


4 


9 


2 


8 


II II 


400 


10 


q 


II 


14 


II 


6 


9 


6 


7 


5 


3 


7 


7 


9 


6| 5 


450 


10 


7 


7 


5 


II 


5 


II 


5 


5 


4 


I 


8 


7 


II 


9 13 


500 


3 


2 


6 


4 


3 


3 


2 


3 


2 


2 


3 


4 


6 


4 


-■^i " 


550 


I 


_i 


4 


3 


3 


7 


2 


3 


2 


3 


I 


3 


2 


7 


3 7 


ftoo 


3 


2 


6 


6 


6 


5 


6 


4 


6 


5 


2 


2 


5 


6 


3 7 


650 


I 


2 


4 


3 


2 


2 


7 


6 


4 


2 


3 


2 


4 


5 


5 ! 


700 


I 


2 


I 


3 


2 


I 


4 


I 


2 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


2! 6 


750 






2 


4 




2 


2 


I 






2 


3 


3 


2 






800 




2 


2 


I 


3 


3 


I 


2 






4 


5 


4 


5 


5 


7 


850 




I 






2 


I 






I 








2 


I 




I 


900 




I 


3 


2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


3 


I 




2 


4 


6 




I 


050 




I 










2 


I 


3 


I 


I 


4 




2 




3 


1,000 




2 


2 


3 


4 


3 


5 


I 


3 


4 


6 


7 


10 


16 


3 


10 


1.250 










2 


2 




I 




3 


3 


4 


3 


5 


4 


6 


1,500 










I 




4 












2 


7 


4 


4 


1. 750 


















I 




I 


3 


5 


I 


I 


6 


2,000 
















I 










^ 


2 


5 


3 


Total 


III 


88 


83 


79 


78 


65 


74 


44 


48 


46 


37 


67 


74 


102 


69 


"3 


Median 


$328 


370 


430 


430 


459 


485 


550 


517 


52s 


488 


692 


592 


675 


680 


558 


633 



96 



Educational Administration 



" Table 21 shows that the 11 1 men teachers with no experience 
are receiving salaries ranging from $150 to $700; that 88 men 
teachers with one year of experience are receiving salaries rang- 
ing from $150 to $1,000, and so on. Table 22 reads in the same 
way for women. 

TABLE 22 
Table Showing Relation of Experience of Women Teachers to Salary 















Years 


of Experience 










Salary 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


n- 
12 


13- 
14 


15- 
19 


20- 
24 


25 

+ 


$150 


2,9 


21 


18 


13 


II 


8 


4 


2 


3 




I 


I 






2 




200 


36 


29 


18 


7 


5 


3 


3 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I 




I 






250 


73 


68 


28 


25 


17 


10 


6 


9 


3 


2 


2 


3 




6 




I 


300 


104 


107 


53 


53 


21 


20 


10 


14 


5 


5 


5 


7 


5 


8 


I 


I 


35° 


74 


103 


63 


51 


43 


38 


32 


16 


II 


17 


10 


10 


12 


9 


10 


5 


400 


6S 


93 


no 


55 


43 


38 


29 


27 


12 


II 


16 


14 


9 


16 


6 


7 


450 


47 


53 


57 


58 


62 


39 


45 


20 


24 


21 


27 


21 


26 


27 


15 


22 


Soo 


24 


23 


43 


25 


35 


42 


33 


14 


23 


II 


15 


12 


12 


16 


16 


9 


S50 


7 


9 


22 


10 


28 


14 


9 


24 


II 


2 


8 


15 


II 


28 


5 


13 


600 


4 


14 


19 


23 


19 


18 


41 


30 


26 


22 


29 


^0 


28 


50 


^0 


21 


650 


7 


7 


14 


9 


24 


13 


12 


12 


n 


3 


14 


8 


7 


15 


8 


II 


700 




7 


6 


9 


6 


7 


5 


2 


6 


3 


4 


II 


8 


14 


7 


6 


750 


I 


4 


3 




4 


6 


6 


7 


3 


5 


4 


5 


8 


8 


7 


6 


800 


I 


I 


I 


4 


5 


5 


7 


8 


7 


7 


12 


15 


8 


II 


IS 


20 


900 






I 




2 


I 


3 




I 




4 


3 


I 


4 


II 


11 


1000 






















I 


I 


3 




6 


7 


Total 


482 


539 


456 


342 


325 


262 


245 


186 


147 


no 


153 


159 


138 


213 


140 


140 


Median 


$345 


372 


422 


420 


468 


468 


493 


514 


532 


495 


548 


568 


564 


592 


624 


629 



" The median salary of men with no experience is $328, with 
one year of experience $370, with two years $430, with ten years 
$692, etc. The median salary of women with no experience is 
$345, with one year of experience $372, with two years $422, 
with ten years $548, etc. 

'' The tables show that the income of a group with a given expe- 
rience, varies greatly. The ratio with which this income increases 
also varies greatly with individuals, some reaching their maximum 
in three years while others take twenty. In the main, however, 
all salary advances due merely to experience take place compar- 
atively early in the teacher's career." 

Dr. Coffman measured also the relation of salary to length of 



The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 97 



700 



600 



500 



^400 

o 
a 

^300 



200 



100 

























^ — 


— 








X 


<^^ 


/^ 


^'•^'^ 










/ 


y 
















/ 









































































9 2 15 18 

Years of Experience 



Z\ 



24 



27 



Fig. II. The relation of length of experience to salary, using the median 
salaries to determine the graph. The solid line is for men teachers; the broken, for 
women teachers. The horizontal line is the scale in length of experience in years. 
The vertical scale represents the amount of salary. 

education. I quote only the median salaries for the different 
amounts of education beyond the elementary school. These 
were, for men and women separately: 

Median Salaries in Dollars Per Year 
0123456789 or more 

Men 455 411 421 438 457 534 658 800 975 1083 

Women 405 376 426 449 424 471 510 561 638 650 

The essential facts can be seen most easily in graphic form, 
as in Figure 12. Of these facts Dr. Coffman says: 

"There is no uniform tendency or relation existing between 
salary and education. ' Education ' in this report means training 



98 



Educational A dministration 



1000 



900 



800 



700 



I GOO 



.500 
>- 

i- 
o 

*^400 



300 



?00 






100 



I Z3456789I0 

Years of Education beyond Elementary School 

Fig, 12. — The relation of salary to amount of education, using the median salaries 
to determine the graph. The solid line is for men teachers; the broken line is 
for women teachers. 

beyond the elementary school; it covers high school, normal 
school, and university work. One year therefore is not of equal 
value with another year. Those with four years of training are 
in most cases high school graduates, those with six years normal 
school graduates, those with eight years college graduates. . . . 
''Two extremely important facts are revealed by this relation- 



The Causes and Conditions of Efficiency in Teaching 99 

ship: (i) The first four years of training beyond the elementary 
schools have little or no effect upon salary; (2) correlation be- 
tween salary and education becomes increasingly marked with 
each succeeding year after the fourth year. A premium is thus 
placed upon advanced academic and professional training. No 
doubt such training selects those who have the inborn capacity to 
profit by it most, but this extra training is their one best means 
of advertising to the world their pecuhar native strength. 

"As the standard number of years of training teachers have had 
is four, and as they receive a median salary of $457, public school 
authorities pay the average male teacher with 5 years of training 
$77 more; with 6 years of training $201 more; with 7 years of 
training $343 more; with 8, $526 more; and with 9 or more years, 
$626 more. 

"The average female public school teacher with 5 years of 
training receives $47 more than the standard; with 6 years, $86 
more; with 7 years, $137 more; with 8 years, $214 more; and with 
9 or more years, $231 more." 



§ lo. The Social and Economic Status of Teachers 

Who are the teachers of our children? The answer to this 
question will throw much light upon the attempt to evaluate the 
education which we are offering to our citizens of to-morrow. We 
are in the habit of saying that teachers should have more salary. 
What kind of teachers do we get for the money we pay? Is there 
any relation between the amount of salary a teacher receives and 
the amount of training secured by him? From what social group 
do teachers come? These and many other similar questions must 
be answered by any one who would attempt to judge of the effi- 
ciency of our public systems of education. In the investigation 
by Professor L. D. Coffman entitled "The Social Composition 
of the Teaching Population," we have the answer to our ques- 
tions. 

Dr. Coffman's research is based upon the answers received 
to a questionnaire which was answered by 5,215 teachers selected 
at random in seventeen states. Most of the answers were secured 
from teachers who were in attendance upon their annual insti- 
tutes. The purpose of the questionnaire was explained and replies 
were received from all of those present. Only a few of Dr. Coff- 
man's tables of results can be presented here. The order in 
which they are given is chosen by the writer. The tables are in 
the main self-explanatory. 

When we ask, Who are the teachers of our children, we must 
inquire concerning the families from which teachers come. The 
social status and the income of the parents of teachers limits the 
social inheritance which these teachers transmit to children. 
The following tables giving the occupations of parents, their 
income, and the number of brothers and sisters present a clear 



llie Social and Economic Status of Teachers loi 



picture of the social and economic groups represented by the 
families from which teachers are recruited. 



TABLE 23 
Race and Nativity of Women Teachers 









Women 16 Years of Age and 


Over 






Race and Nativity 


Aggregate 


In Cities Having at 
Least 50,000 Inhab. 


In Smaller Cities and 
Country Districts 




Total 


Teachers 


Total 


Teachers 


Total 


Teachers 




No. 


Per 

10,000 


No. 


Per 

10,000 


No. 


Per 

1,000 


Native white, both 
parents native. . . . 

Native white, one or 
both parents for- 
eign born 

Foreign born, v/hite 


12,130,161 

4,288,969 
4,403,494 


207,823 

88,449 
17,218 


171 

206 
39 


1,703,955 

1,700,209 
2,095,206 


35,514 

30,670 
7,553 


208 

180 
36 


10,426,206 

2,588,760 
2,308,288 


72,309 

57,779 
9,665 


i6s 

223 
42 



TABLE 24 
Distribution of Men Teachers According to the Occupation of Their Fathers 





i 


, 


i 


c3 



ci 


i 


13 




6 









> 
^ 


fd 


c 
a 




^ 


Total 


Not answered 

Farmers 

Prof, men 


4 

29 

2 

3 

2 


5 

'I 

5 
4 

3 


20 
245 
13 
11 
20 
16 
I 
5 


6 
6 
3 

2 

1 


I 


21 
3 

2 


2 

27 

7 
6 
5 
2 


4 
I 
2 
2 

I 


2 
81 

4 
5 

I 
4 

I 


3 

I 

I 


2 

1 


4 
33 
7 
10 
7 
9 
2 


2 
75 
8 
9 
6 
9 

I 


8 

71 

8 

5 

24 

19 

3 


3 

14 

2 

I 

20 


I 
9 
5 


I 
20 

1 
I 
3 

I 




Artisans . . 


12 


Laborers 

Pub. officials 

Retired. . . 






Totals 


40 


72 


331 


18 


I 


27 


49 


10 


98 


5 


4 


72 


110 


138 


15 


27 


1037 



TABLE 25 
Distribution of Women Teachers According to the Occupation of Their Fathers 



Not answered. 

Farmers 

Prof. men. . . . 

Business 

Artisans 

Laborers 

Pub. officials. . 

Retired 

Invalids 

Totals 



rt 




-6 






cj 


TJ 


c 

(3 


d 


1 


ffi 


>-^ 


>h' 




d 

c 


X 


.2 




^ 







^ 


t2 


S 


^ 


;^ 


^ 


12; 


;2; 


^ 


PM 


H 


^ 


^ 


3 


17 


44 


6 


3 


4 


26 


2 


12 


5 


2 


31 


29 


18 


3 


.,' 6l 


47 


127 


198 


8 


33 


55 


128 


36 


145 


10 


19 


103 


335 


73 


22 


24 


46 


8 


12 


42 


10 


6 


6 


23 


6 


19 


6 




41 


2b 


12 


13 


6 


2 


14 


26 


82 


13 


4 


11 


58 


II 


40 


2 


10 


106 


47 


S6 


23 


4 


4 


13 


22 


83 


12 


5 


9 


62 


16 


16 


3 


19 


106 


06 


33 


II 


5 


8 


7 


30 


35 


2 


22 


6 


34 


10 


23 


2 


4 


61 


76 


37 


6 


2 


4 


1 


3 


10 






2 


9 


I 


4 


I 




6 


II 


4 


4 




2 


2 


7 


n 


7 


I 




3 


3 


4 






12 


14 


4 


I 






1 


I 


1 




I 




1 






I 
















96 


.•'45 506 


58 


75 


93 


344 


85 


263 


30 


54 


466 


636 


217 


83 


44 


72 



Total 



214 
1,409 
238 
493 
519 
361 
58 

J. 

3.367 



I02 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 26 
Summary of Tables 24 and 25 in Percentages 



Percentage who are the children of farmers 

Percentage who are the children of men in professional life 

Percentage who are the children of business men 

Percentage who are the children of artisans 

Percentage who are the children of laborers 

Percentage who are the children of pubHc officials 




Women 



TABLE 27 
The Relation of the Occupation of Tarents of Teachers to Parental Income 





Farmers 


Professions 




Business 


Artisans 


Laborer 


Officials 


Income 




















M. W. 


Tot. 


M. 


W.lTot. M. 


W. 


Tot. 


M. 


W. 


Tof. 


M. 


W. 


Tot. 


M. 


W. 


Tot. 


— $250 


88 122 


210 


I 


10 


II 


I 


13 


14 


6 


13 


19 


II 


35 


46 






2 


$250— 500 


167 218 


3«5 


II 


19 


30 


7 


25 


32 


17 


46 


63 


26 


86 


112 


I 




5 


500 750 


118 182 


300 


9 


29 


^^ 


7 


^l 


H 


18 


75 


93 


15 


109 


124 


2 




7 


750—1000 


95 194 


289 


14 


34 


48 


10 


t)8 


78 


19 


113 


132 


8 


4b 


54 


I 


II 


12 


1000 — 1250 


62 150 


212 


8 


29 


37 


8 


09 


77 


7 


92 


99 


3 


9 


12 


I 


12 


13 


1250 — 1500 


22 47 


(39 


3 


17 


30 


5 


37 


42 


4 


24 


28 




2 


2 


I 




5 


1500 — 1750 


14 35 


49 


3 


b 


9 


2 


15 


17 


4 


15 


19 


I 


4 


5 


I 




2 


1750—2000 


28 59 


H7 


4 


16 


20 


3 


3b 


39 


I 


19 


20 


I 




I 




3 


3 


2000 -|- 


37 104 


1141 


5 


ii 


38 


IS 


lOI 


116 


3 


28 


31 




? 


3 


I 


8 


9 






1742 






261 






447 






504 






359 






58 


Median 




S730 






$1025 






$1219 






$8q6 






$542 






$1058 


Quartile 




315 




447 






575 






287 






189 






365 



TABLE 28 
The Relation of Number of Brothers and Sisters of Teachers to the Occupation of Fathers 



Median. 
25 P.. . . 
75P.. ■• 



Farmers 



M. W. Tot 



64 I 

57| 
44 1 
25 
13I 
12 



109 
226 
249 
304 
256 
254 
206 
167 
117 
76 
36 



2044 

4 
2 



Professional 



M. W. Tot. M. W. Tot 



Business 



3061 

3 
2 
2 



Artisans 



Laborers 



M.i W.I Tot. M.i W. Tot 



549 i 



53 5 19 

85 61 52 

106 13 62 

106 7 6r 

73 7 54 

65 6 30 



601 



71 27 
2I 16 
3' 
2 



409 



Officials 
M. W. Tot. 



The Social and Economic Status of Teachers 103 

The relation between parental income and years of training 
beyond the elementary school secured before beginning to teach 
and between parental income and the age at which teaching was 
begun appear in the following tables. The income of parents 
indicated in the table by o, i, 2, 3, etc., are (o) less than $250; 
(i) $250-8500; (2) $500-1750; (3) $750-$!, 000; (9) 

$2,250-$2,500. 

TABLE 29 
The Relation of Parental Income to Years of Training of Men Teachers 











Parental Income 










Training 







































I 


2 


3 1 4 


5 


' 


7 


8 


9 





25 


12 


ii 


18 i 9 


lO 


3 


3 


3 


6 


I 


5 


31 


37 


14 


13 


6 


2 




4 


6 


2 


Q 


28 


44 


21 


16 


12 


3 


I 


4 


9 


3 


12 


18 


33 


25 


25 


13 


3 


3 


4 


6 


4 


20 


29 


51 


47 


3i 


21 


9 


2 


8 


8 


5 


5 


7 


36 


22 


25 


10 


3 


6 


4 


6 


6 


8 


9 


17 


22 


19 


9 


4 


4 


6 


3 


7 


4 


6 


7 


14 


13 


9 


6 


2 


3 


5 


8 


10 


7 


13 


12 


16 


9 


3 


3 


6 


6 


Q 


2 


I 


3 


3 


2 


4 








3 


10 


I 




5 


2 


4 


5 


3 




I 


3 


Totals 


lOI 


148 


279 


200 


175 


108 


39 


24 


43 


61 


Median 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


S 


4 


4 



TABLE 30 
The Relation of Parental Income to Years of Training of Women Teachers 













Parental Income 










Training 













































I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 





65 


40 


SI 


35 


IS 


10 


2 


6 


S 


15 


I 


51 


33 


SO 


39 


35 


10 


6 


6 


7 


17 


2 


77 


40 


SO 


SO 


44 


32 


7 


8 


16 


21 


3 


129 


60 


80 


77 


91 


S8 


17 


15 


22 


28 


4 


241 


89 


128 


146 


154 


134 


40 


26 


39 


71 


5 


ISO 


44 


68 


78 


93 


73 


23 


14 


31 


45 


6 


125 


44 


66 


56 


83 


55 


21 


8 


22 


^? 


7 


48 


9 


13 


18 


17 


24 


10 


3 


4 


16 


8 


39 


7 


14 


II 


14 


16 


8 


3 


II 


36 


9 


12 


I 


3 


I 


5 


2 


3 




3 


7 


10 


I 


3 


7 


I 


3 


3 


3 






3 


Totals 


938 


570 


529 


512 


554 


417 


140 


89 


160 


328 


Median 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 



I04 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 31 
Relation of Parental Income to Beginning Age of Men Teachers 











Parental Income 








Beginning Age 
































I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


i6 


7 


9 


2 


5 


4 


I 


I 




3 


17 


8 


25 


18 


12 


6 


2 


2 


5 


9 


18 


16 


65 


44 


47 


21 


12 


3 


10 


10 


19 


32 


56 


27 


31 


24 


4 


4 


8 


14 


20 


35 


45 


38 


25 


18 


3 


7 


8 




21 


25 


31 


36 


19 


'^ 


6 


3 


5 




22 


10 


19 


14 


14 


6 


4 




2 




23 


5 


9 


9 


10 


7 


3 


I 






24 


2 


9 


5 


5 


4 




I 


2 




25 


4 


4 


2 


4 


2 


3 


I 






26 




I 




I 


3 






3 




27 


2 




I 














28 


I 


I 


I 








I 






29 








I 




I 








30 




3 






I 








2 


Totals 


147 


277 


199 


174 


108 


39 


24 


43 


61 


Median age 


20.3 


19 7 


20.2 


19 7 


19-7 


20.0 


20.3 


19.7 


19.6 



TABLE 32 
Relation of Parental Income to Beginning Age of Women Teachers 











Parental Income 








Beginning Age 
































I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


16 


17 


25 


iS 


10 


16 


3 




3 


13 


17 


57 


66 


50 


53 


48 


9 


10 


16 


15 


18 


107 


139 


163 


176 


100 


29 


20 


39 


76 


19 


62 


95 


98 


137 


105 


33 


29 


36 


62 


20 


54 


105 


88 


87 


62 


20 


16 


21 


47 


21 


39 


49 


40 


38 


35 


20 


6 


15 


61 


22 


'? 


25 


22 


24 


17 


9 


2 


10 


18 


23 


6 


8 


13 


9 


12 


5 


3 


6 


15 


24 


2 


7 


4 


9 


4 


4 




3 


8 


25 


3 


2 


4 


I 


2 


3 


I 


4 


3 


26 


2 


I 


3 


3 


2 






2 


I 


27 


3 


3 


I 


I 


2 






I 


I 


28 






I 




I 


I 






2 


29 




2 






3 






I 




30 


6 


I 


I 




4 






2 


I 


Totals 


377 


528 


506 


548 


413 


136 


87 


159 


323 


Median age 


19.1 


19 3 


19 3 


19.2 


19.4 


19.8 


19 5 


19.6 


20.0 



Dr. Coffman's conclusions, amply justified by the data studied, 
are given below. Attention is called in particular to the questions 
with which this summary closes. 



The Social and Economic Status of Teachers 105 

"The Typical American Teacher" 

''The typical American male public school teacher, assuming 
that he can be described in terms of the medians previously 
referred to, but remembering that a median is a point about 
which individuals vary and that our hypothetical individual is 
as likely to be below as above it, is twenty-nine years of age, hav- 
ing begun teaching when he was almost twenty years of age after 
he had received but three or four years of training beyond the 
elementary school. In the nine years elapsing between the age 
he began teaching and his present age, he has had seven years 
of experience and his salary at the present time is $489 a year. 
Both of his parents were living when he entered teaching and 
both spoke the EngHsh language. They had an annual income 
from their farm of $700 which they were compelled to use to sup- 
port them.selves and their four or five children. 

''His first experience as a teacher was secured in the rural 
schools, where he remained for two years at a salary of $390 per 
year. He found it customary for rural school teachers to have 
only three years of training beyond the elementary school, but 
in order for him to advance to a town school position he had to 
get an additional year of training. He also found that in case he 
wished to become a city school teacher that two more years of 
training or six in all beyond the elementary school were needed. 

"His salary increased rather regularly during the first six years 
of his experience, or until he was about twenty-six years of age 
After that he found that age and experience played a rather 
insignificant part in determining his salary, but that training still 
afforded him a powerful leverage. 

"The typical American female teacher is twenty-four years of 
age, having entered teaching in the early part of her nineteenth 
year when she had received but four years training beyond the 
elementary schools. Her salary at her present age is $485 a year. 



io6 Educational Administration 

She is native born of native born parents, both of whom speak 
the English language. When she entered teaching both of her 
parents were living and had an annual income of approximately 
$800 which they were compelled to use to support themselves 
and their four or five children. The young woman early found the 
pressure both real and anticipated to earn her own way very 
heavy. As teaching was regarded as a highly respectable calHng 
and as the transfer from school room as a student to it as a teacher 
was but a step, she decided upon teaching. 

''Her first experience as a teacher was gotten in the rural 
school where she remained but two years. If she went from there 
to a town school her promotion was based almost solely upon her 
experience as no additional training was required by the officials 
of the town. If she desired to teach in a city school, she was 
compelled to secure at least one more year of training in all, but 
each additional year of training she found increased her salary. 

"So far she has profited each year of her brief experience by 
having her salary increased and this will probably be true for 
the next two years should she find it necessary to remain in teach- 
ing that long. 

''Into the hands of teachers who more or less nearly conform 
to the above description is given the duty of transmitting the 
culture of the race to the youth of the land, of training them in 
habits of thinking, in modes of behavior, in methods of work, 
and in intelligent appreciations. Some of the unanswered ques- 
tions are: What initiative and resourcefulness have such teachers? 
What perspective due to thorough preparation have they secured? 
What vision of the possibiUties of the calhng do they possess? 
What modicum do they add to our professional inheritance? What 
chance has the average American boy or girl of being wisely and 
intelligently educated by the average American teacher, male 
or female?" 



§11. The Supervision of Special Subjects 

The practice of supervision varies widely in the United States. 
In most cities supervisors may be roughly classified into two 
groups; general supervisors who have oversight of all of the 
subjects taught in a school, a group of schools or one or more 
grades in a group of schools, and special supervisors who direct 
the work in a single subject in all of the grades of a group of 
schools. The first group of supervisors are variously named, 
superintendents, assistant and district superintendents, grammar 
grade and primary supervisors, and principals. In the second 
group are special supervisors of music, drawing, penmanship, 
manual training, physical education, sewing, domestic science. 
The general supervisors are the highest paid men and women 
in our school systems. They are expected to have general con- 
trol of schools with respect to organization, curriculum, disci- 
pHne, methods of instruction and the like. With the increase 
is administrative responsibility, found in the office of superintend- 
ent or of principal of a large school, these officers tend to pay 
more attention to organization and less to the efficiency of the 
teaching done in the schools under their direction. Their work 
is often supplemented by the primary or grammar grade super- 
visor who devotes almost all of his time to the professional growth 
of teachers, the proper organization of the course of study and 
the like. 

With the introduction of new subjects with which the general 
supervisor is not familiar or which he feels unable to supervise 
adequately there is a demand for a special supervisor. These spe- 
cial supervisors vary in our cities from men and women who are 
merely special teachers to those who are in fact supervisors who 
direct the work of many special teachers or who train the regular 

J07 



io8 Educational Administration 

grade teacher to teach the special subject. The ffequeticy with 
which these special supervisors or teachers are employed in cities 
having more than 8,000 inhabitants, the sex selection, the respon- 
sibihty which these supervisors assume and the salaries paid to 
them are among the topics most carefully treated in Professor 
W. A. Jessup's ''Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision." 
Some of the tables from Dr. Jessup's study are given below. 

TABLE 2>3> 

Percentages of Cities Reporting the Employment of Supervisors of Special 

Subjects in 1908 



Music 85 

Drawing 75 

Penmanship 21 

Manual Training 43 

Sewing 18 

Domestic Science 30 

Physical Education 20 



''In recent years there has been a striking increase in the 
number of cities employing specialists. This has been especially 
true of music, drawing and manual training. Distribution for 
the location of the cities brings out the fact that the early develop- 
ment of the practice of employing specialists has been largely 
confined to the states of the North Atlantic and the North Central 
divisions. Distribution for size of cities indicates that the prac- 
tice has for the most part started in the larger cities, extending 
to the smaller cities later." 



The Supervision of Special Subjects 



109 



TABLE 34 
Thl; Distribution, by Sex, of Supervisors of Special Subjects (1908) 

(a) Distribution of men and women, by subjects and location. 

(b) Percentage of women specialists, distributed by subjects and location. 



(a) 

Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Manual Training. 

Sewing 

Domestic Sci.. . . 
Physical Edu.. . . 

ST" 

Music 

Draw'ing 

Penmanship. . . . , 
Manual Training, 
Sewing. ... ._.... 
Domestic Sci.. . . 
Phj'sical Edu.. . . 



North 
Atlantic 
States 



51-83 
80.10 
33-94 
30.10 
100.00 
100.00 
69-38 



South 
Atlantic 
States 



80.95 
76.47 
10.00 
21.05 
100.00 
100.00 
71.42 



South 
Central 
States. 



76.66 

93- 10 

36.33 

II. II 

100.00 

100.00 

0.00 



North 
Central 
States 



26 



70.43 
90.06 
45.00 
15-74 
100.00 
100.00 
40.90 



Western 
States 



75-67 

86.48 

50.00 

8.00 

100.00 

100.00 

41 .66 



United 

States 

as a whole 



492 
420 
119 

263 
67 



63.41 
85.00 
38-65 
20.14 
100.00 
100.00 
54-78 



"A return postal card was submitted to a group of specialists 
in each subject selected at random. 

Subject supervised Annual Salary Sex 

Check (X) the method which most nearly describes yours. 
( ) a. Special subject taught entirely by regular teacher. 
( ) b. New material taught by yourself or assistants at regular intervals, followed 

by a drill on the same by the regular teacher. 
( ) c. Special subject entirely under your charge and all lessons given by yourself 

or assistants. 



''Three hundred and forty- three replies were received from the 
nine hundred and ninety-eight cards sent out. Of this number 
twenty-five were discarded on account of indefinite response. 
'There remained three hundred and eighteen replies that were 
clearly answered. These were distributed as follows : eighty- three 
represented speciaKsts in music; eighty-six in drawing; eighteen 
in penmanship; twenty-four in physical education; fifty-eight in 
manual training; thirty- three in domestic science and sixteen in 



110 



Educational A dministration 



sewing. It is thus seen that the returns were related somewhat 
closely to the number of specialists in each field. 

''These answers for each subject were thus distributed for 
method and size of cities." 

TABLE 35 
Differences in the Division of Responsibility (1910) 



(i) Size of City 

Plan 


Music 


Drawing 


Penmanship 


Physical 
Education 


A. B. 


c. 


A. 


B. 


c. 


A. B. C. 


A. B. C. 


8- 10,000 


8 


2 


I 


6 


3 


I 


2 


10- 15,000 


17 


2 


I 


19 


2 


4 I 


I 


15- 20,000 


I 10 


I 




6 


I 


I I 




20- 30,000 


2 7 




I 


9 


I 


2 I 


I I 


30- 50,000 


3 6 


2 




14 




3 


2 


50-100,000 


2 9 




2 


b 


I 


I 


3 


100-200,000 


2 2 




I 


I 




I 


3 I 


200-1,000,000 


4 I 


I 


2 


5 


2 


2 


2 8 


1,000,000 and over 


I 






2 









Size of City 

Plan 


Manual 
Training 


Domestic 

Science 


Sewing 


A. B. 


C. 


A. B 


C. 


A. B. C. 


8- 10,000 


I 


8 




4 


I 


10- 15,000 




6 




4 




15- 20,000 




3 




2 


I I 


20- 30,000 


I I 


4 




3 


3 


30, 50,000 


I 3 


3 


4 


4 




50-100,000 


2 


12 




4 


2 4 


100-200,000 


I 


4 


I 


2 


I I 


200-1 ,000,000 


I 


5 




4 


I 3 


1,000,000 and over 


I 


I 




I 





(2) Combining Irrespective of Size 
OF Cities 



Plan 



Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical Education 
Manual Training. . 
Domestic Science. . 
Sewing 



61 
68 

14 

20 

8 

5 

4 



8 
10 

2 

2 

46 

28 



Total 



83 
86 
18 
24 
58 
2,7, 
16 



(3) Percentage of Cities 
Following Plan C 



Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical Education 
Manual Training . . 
Domestic Science . . 
Sewing 



Per cent 



The Supervision of Special Subjects 



III 



TABLE 36 
Median Annual Salaries of Supervisors of Special Subjects (1908, 



Subject 



Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Manual Training. . 
Physical Education 
Domestic Science. . 
Sewing 



Men 


Women 


Middle 50 


Per Cent 








Men 


Women 


$1,009.37 


$748.38 


$800-$ 1, 300 


$600-$ 900 


1,116.66 


807 . 50 


950- 1,750 


650- 950 


1,104. 16 


766.66 


800- 1,300 


600- 950 


1,138.63 


795-83 


900- 1,500 


650- 1,000 


1,141 .66 


803 • 2>3 


900- 1,500 


600- 1,000 




804.16 




600- 950 




742.80 




600- 900 



The tables given above which show salaries and responsibility 
assumed suggest certain questions concerning the current prac- 
tice. It will be noted that one-fourth of the women supervisors 
get less than six hundred and fifty dollars. When this fact is 
related to the plan of work most commonly followed by these 
supervisors, one may question the wisdom of this kind of school 
organization. What can one expect from a six hundred dollar 
teacher who visits the classroom occasionally and teaches a lesson 
in music, drawing, or physical culture which is usually not vitally 
related to anything else which the children do. Fifty-six per 
cent of the supervisors follow this plan of work. Even the higher 
paid teacher who spends her time going from room to room teach- 
ing children with whom she is unacquainted, with very little time 
for conference with the room teacher, often with very httle ability 
to train the regular teacher, may not be an entirely good invest- 
ment. It has seemed to the writer that any subject taught in the 
regular classroom should be taught by the regular teaching staff. 
Out of a group of ten or of fifty teachers in any one building it 
ought to be possible to find teachers who could undertake work 
in music, drawing, penmanship, sewing and the simpler forms of 
manual training. There would be a distinct advantage in having 
one regular teacher teaching the music in three or four rooms 



112 Educational Administration 

while other teachers with special ability undertook the work in 
drawing, penmanship or manual training. Such an interchange 
of work ought to make for strength all along the line. The special 
subjects would betaught by teachers acquainted with the children 
and with the whole curriculum. If such a plan of organization 
were followed, it would be the special function of a well paid 
supervisor to work with teachers of special talent and with more 
than usual interest in the field represented. 



§12. The Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in the 
United States ^ 

The Nature of the Data and the Sources of Error 

The data obtained from secondary schools concerning the 
status of their teachers came in response to the blank reprinted 
below. The data were not furnished at all in the case of some 
few public schools and many private schools. They were incom- 
plete in still other cases, the optional Hst of individualized facts 
naturally being omitted as a general rule by the very large high 
schools. 

There is probably a tendency on the part of those private 
schools which are below the standard in their locaKty in respect 
to the salaries and preparation of their staff, to withhold the data 
more frequently than is done by those which are above the stan- 
dard. I should, in fact, consider that to estimate for private 
secondary schools as a whole from the selected group that do re- 
port, it would be proper to figure the non-reporting institutions 
as about lo per cent lower than those reporting, in salaries and 
in the length of education of the staff. 

There is a tendency to include in the reports teachers of the 
elementary grades, but this error can be detected by means of 
certain facts reported in the general blank. The staff of the 
United States Bureau of Education eliminated such cases from 
the records. 

Special Inquiry Blank of the Bureau of Education 
The information under "Special," in all probabiHty, will not 

1 This section is in the main quoted from the Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation with the same title by Edward L. Thorndike (Bulletin No. 4, 1909). 

113 



114 



Educational Administration 



be asked for again for at least five years. It is therefore of the 
utmost importance that it be given in complete form and of 
course with great pains to attain perfect accuracy. 

SPECIAL 

Give below the number of teachers (including the principal) 
receiving in cash the approximate annual salary indicated. In 
case of a private school state how many of each salary receive 
board and lodging in addition. 





Less 
than $400 


$400 to 
$499 


$500 to 
$599 


$600 to 
$699 


$700 to 
$799 


$800 to 

$899 


$900 to 
$999 


$1000 to 

$1099 




















Women 


















Board and lodging . 








































$1100 to 
$1199 


$1200 to 
$1299 


$1300 to 
$1399 


$1400 to 

$1499 


$1500 to 
$1999 


$2000 to 

$2499 


$2500 to 
$2999 


$3000 
or more 


Men 


















Women . . 


















Board and lodo'ing . 





































Give the number of teachers (including the principal) who have 
hc,d regular high school, normal, college, or other higher education 
beyond the elementary school extending over the periods indi- 
cated. 





Less 

than I 
year 


I up to 2 
years 


2 up to 4 
years 


4 up to 6 
years 


6 up to 8 
years 


8 up to 9 
years 


9 up to 
ro years 


10 years 
or more 


Men 


















Women 





































Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 115 



Give the number of teachers (including the principal) who have 
taught (previous to the year 1906-7) the number of years indi- 
cated. 





Less 
than I 
year 


I year 


2 years 


3 years 


4 years 


5 years 


1 

6 years 7 years 


Men 


























































8 years 


9 years 


10 to 14 
years 


IS to 19 
years 


20 to 24 
years 


25 to 29 
years 


30 to 34 
years 


35 years 
or more 


Men 


















Women 





































ALTERNATIVE FORM 

In lieu of the statistics asked for in the three special tables 
above, it would be more useful to the bureau to have the same 
information given in the form indicated in the table below. In 
column (A) give the name of the individual teacher; (B) sex; (C) 
salary per year in cash; (D) state whether or not board and lodg- 
ing are included; (E) state the subjects which he, or she, teaches; 
(F) the number of years the teacher spent as a student in high 
school; (G) number of years as a student in a regular normal 
school, or other school of higher education beyond the high school; 
(H) years of teaching experience previous to this year. 

The information given below will be treated as confidential 
with respect to the institution and individuals. In case the infor- 
mation requested be given in the following table, the summarized 
statistics asked for in the three special tables above may be 
omitted. 



ii6 



Educational Administration 



A 


B 


c 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


Names of High School 
Teachers 


Sex 


Annual 
Salary 


Board 

and 

Lodging 


Subjects Taught by 
Each 


Years 
Educa- 
tion in 

H. S. 


Years 
Beyond 


Years 
Experi- 
ence 



















































































(Signature and title of officer making this report.) 



(Post-office and street address.) 



Errors in the Amount of Salary Reported 

In the case of salary amounts there is the possibility, especially 
in the case of private schools in cities, that teachers who give 
only part of their time in return for the salary will be included 
without a note to that effect. This will, however, happen only 
rarely, for the institutions concerned will naturally protect them- 
selves against any too low estimate of their salary schedule. 
Where some teachers receive much less than the general average 
for the school I have therefore been very cautious in including 
them. There are perhaps a very few such cases of part-time 
salaries included in the case of private schools in cities. On the 
other hand, there are counterbalancing cases of teachers in pri- 
vate schools who are required to give more time to the work for 
which the salary is paid than is the case in public high schools. 

The inequality in the length of the school year for which the 
salary is given is not exactly a source of error, but is a factor 
which must be considered in interpreting the salary amounts, 
and particularly the variations toward very low amounts, which 
come largely from the Southern States. 

It is not desirable to raise the salaries for school years of less 



Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 117 

than the standard length, for the reason that, after all, the salary 
as it stands is, in most cases, the teacher's income. We do not 
know that he gets or can get a proportionate increase by utilizing 
the excess of leisure that he has. He probably very rarely does. 
It seems best, then, to omit any hypothetical correction of the 
data and to trust to the reader to remember that the average 
length of year for which the salaries stated are given is somewhat 
under the standard 180 school days, and also that some of the 
very low salaries are for short years. The length of year is not 
much below the standard, for the schools concerned are high 
schools, very few of which are situated in communities unable 
to support a full school year; and the very lowest salaries are 
often for a standard school year. 

Errors in the Amount of Education Reported 

The reports on the amount of education are the least secure 
and unambiguous. There is, on the one hand, a tendency to 
neglect the definite request to include years in high school in the 
computation. A record of 4 years in high school and 4 years 
beyond high school in the alternative form will thus be sometimes 
counted in the ''4 up to 6 years" column instead of the ^'8 years" 
column. There is also a tendency to misunderstand the meaning 
of ''up to" as "up through," and thus to score 4 years in the 
'' 2 up to 4 years" column, 6 years in the ''4 up to 6 years" colum.n 
and so on. The form of the blank was designed to give oppor- 
tunity for properly counting parts of a year (as, for instance, 
attendance on summer sessions), but it would have been a less 
evil, perhaps, to have used the headings ''i year," "2 years," 
''3 years," "4 years," "5 years," and so on. There is, on the 
other hand, a tendency to estimate, as belonging to high school 
education, years which should, by the customary definitions, 
count only as elementary education, and to estimate as collegiate 



ii8 Educational Administration 

education years which, by the customary definitions, should 
count only as secondary education. The alternative form gives 
a check upon the first two of these errors of the reporting officers 
in the many cases where it, as well as the upper part of the special 
form, is filled out. 

Li the cases where it is not filled out, usually cases of large 
schools, the internal evidence of the record or knowledge obtained 
from other sources can serve as a check. If, for instance, in a 
large Massachusetts high school we have a record like the follow- 
ing: 

2 up to 4 4 up to 6 6 up to 8 8 up to 9 9 

o 2 7 20 

it is almost a certainty that the reporting officer put the sixes 
in the "4 up to 6" column, the eights in the ''6 up to 8" column. 
For the completion of four years in high school and four years 
in college is so general amongst the teachers in Massachusetts 
high schools that the existence of a school of 1 1 teachers with only 
2 of that degree of education is far less likely than the existence 
of error in the report. 

In estimating the condition of the secondary school staff in 
general with respect to length of education from the returns of 
the present census I have, where both are given, taken the alter- 
native form record in preference to the general distribution, have 
eliminated teachers in elementary grades, and have omitted from 
the calculation cases where it seemed highly probable that the 
reporting officer misunderstood the blanks; but I have not inter- 
fered with the reporting officer's judgment as to what constitutes 
elementary education or education in advance of it. If the unde- 
tected misunderstandings of the request to include high school 
education and of the meaning of "up to" outweigh the overesti- 
mations of the length of teachers' education beyond a typical 
elementary school, the general results will rate the length of the 



Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 119 

education of secondary school teachers too low. If the reverse 
is the ca::e, they will rate it too high. 

I have gone to the pains of measuring the influence of these 
combined opposite errors in the case of public high schools by a 
special inquiry sent to 1,000 individual teachers. . . . 

The returns from this special inquiry show that in the case of 
public high schools neither of these errors is of great magnitude 
in the original reports, and that they nearly counterbalance 
each other. 

Errors in the Length of Experience Reported 

The reports concerning length of experience in teaching are 
subject to five sources of error, one of which is important. These 
are: First, the tendency to report roughly, especially in round 
numbers; second, the tendency to avoid a statement of o years; 
third, the possible tendency of some women to reduce the number 
of years; fourth, the tendency of a school system to be generous 
in rating its staff for amount of experience; and fifth, the tendency 
to report the number of years of experience in the present school 
system, instead of the total number. This last source of error 
is the important one, because its frequency and its amount of 
influence cannot well be measured. For the other four, rational 
allowances can be made, so that no one of them does any harm of 
consequence. But the magnitude of the influence of the fifth, 
due to misunderstandings of individuals or recording officers, can- 
not be foretold. I have therefore gone to some pains to measure 
it with the help of the special inquiry described above. 

The special inquiry shows that the error of reporting experience 
in the present school only is very rare in the case of the individual- 
ized returns, being made by only about one teacher in fifty. It is 
probably somewhat more frequent in the cases where the general 
table is made out by the school principal or secretary. 

There is another tendency which is not really an error, except 



I20 Educational Administration 

in view of the wording of the blank, and of the fact that in the 
presentation of the data it is desirable to estimate the length of 
experience up to the year in which the given salary is re- 
ceived. This in the tendency of a person whose career is, say, 
1904-5, first year of teaching, salary $500; 1905-6, second year 
of teaching, salary $600; 1906-7, third year of teaching, salary 
$725 — to report, salary, $725; experience, three years. This 
occurs in over a third of the cases. 

If the reader will bear in mind the nature of the data, he will 
nowhere be misled by the summaries that follow. In cases where 
the conclusions are subject to any considerable influence from the 
above mentioned sources of error in the original reports, the fact 
will be stated. 

The Teaching Staff oj Public Secondary Schools 

Salaries. The salaries of men teachers in public high schools 
range from less than $300 to $3,500. If the principals of the 
schools are included the upper limit becomes $5,000. There is no 
one salary that can properly be called typical in the sense of repre- 
senting a tendency about which all the salaries cluster closely. 
If one wxre compelled to choose one amount as the most likely 
amount to be received by a teacher or principal (in the vast ma- 
jority of our high schools the principal is a working teacher, 
giving much over half of his time to class instruction and class 
management) , the amount would be $700. Their median salary 
is $900; that is, of the men engaged in pubKc high-school work 
there are as many who receive less than $900 as there are receiv- 
ing more than $900. Of a hundred such men 5 receive less than 
$500, 51 receive from $500 up to $1,000, 27 from $1,000 up to 
$1,500, 10 from $1,500 up to $2,000, and 7 from $2,000 up. Over 
half (53 per cent) of them receive from $600 to $1,000, inclusive.^ 

1 The $i,ooo-$i,o99 group is composed, to about four-fifths of its membership, 
of salaries of exactly $1,000. 



Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 121 



Figure 13 repeats these facts, and gives at a glance the general 
financial status of the men engaged in public high schools in the 
United States. 

The salaries of women engaged in public high-school work range 
from less than $200 to the group $2,5oo-$2,999. As with the men, 
there is no one salary amount which is typical in the sense of 
representing a true central tendency; $550 would be the most 

14 





r-i 






































L 
















r-J 






































\ 




W 


erCerrf. 






) 












n 







400 



800 



2400 



2800 



3200 



1200 1600 2000 

Salary, Do 1 1 a rs 

Fig. 13. — Relative frequencies of different annual salaries of men teachers in public 
high schools. The horizontal line is a scale of salary amounts from o up. The 
total area enclosed within the heavy line and the base line equals loo per cent. 
The dash line is derived from estimates from too few cases to be very reliable. 

suitable choice if a choice had to be made. Nor would it be so 
misleading as the corresponding $700 would be in the case of men; 
for half of the salaries are between $400 and $675, inclusive. The 
median salary is $650. Of a hundred women 22 receive less than 
$500, 59 from $500 up to $1,000, 14 from $1,000 up to $1,500, and 
5, $1,500 and over. Figure 14 summarizes the general financial 
status of women engaged in public high-school work. 



122 



Educational A dniimsiraiion 



10 

16 




i- 











14 
Iff 

6) lO 






" 






















ID 








"L 








r 
















r 












A 


1 
1 

1 








^ =IPerCe 

m 


nf. 




1 






















J 
















1 1 t 






1, 1 1 1 .. 


,.-1 1 — 1 — 1 — 





400 



700 1000 1500 

Salary, Dollars 



2000 



Fig. 14. — Relative frequencies of different annual salaries of women teachers in 
public high schools. For explanation of the diagram, see the legend of figure 13. 



The Teachers^ Education. The number of years that the man 
engaged in secondary school work spent as a student in high 
school, normal school, college, or other institution beyond the 



Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 123 



elementary school ranges from o to 13, or possibly higher in a few 
cases. There is no close adherence to any one type the country 
over, though 8 years is the most common length. The median 
length is 7 years. Of a hundred men 10 have had less than 4 years 
beyond the elementary school, 45 have had from 4 up to 8 years, 







































































































































m- 


IPerC 


'M 








































— n 

































2 



10 



II 



\Z 



I 

Fig. 15. — Relative frequencies of different amounts of education of men teachers in 
public high schools. The horizontal line is a scale of length of education be- 
yond the elementary school (in years). The dash line is derived from estimates 
from too few cases to be entirely reliable. 

30 have had 8 years, and 15 have had 9 years or more. Three- 
fifths have had 6, 7, or 8 years. Figure 15 shows the facts. 

The length of education beyond the elementary school in the 
case of women teachers ranges from o to 12 years, or possibly 
higher in a few cases. The typical condition is 8 years. There 
are somewhat more women who have had 8 years or more than 
who have had 7 years or less. Of a hundred women, 6 or 7 
have had less than 4 years beyond the elementary school, 40 or 



124 



Educational Administration 



41 have had from 4 up to 8 years, 41 to 42 have had 8 years, 
and II or 12 have had 9 years or more. Figure 16 shows the 
facts. 
Experience in Teaching. The amount of experience in teaching, 

























































































































































P^Z/'e 


r Cent 






















































































































I Z 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 10 II 12 

Fig. 16. — Relative frequencies of different amounts of education of women teachers 

in public high schools. For explanation of the diagram see the legend of figure 

15- 

previous to the year for which the salary was reported, as meas- 
ured in years, ranges for the men from o to beyond 50, though 
there are only about three in a hundred who have taught over 
30 years. The inquiry for a typical length would, of course, be 



Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 125 

absurd. The median is probably 8 years. That is, as many 
pubHc high-school men have taught over 9 years as have taught 
7 years or less. Table 37 gives the facts as reported con- 
cerning the amount of experience of the men teachers and 
principals. 



25 



20 



515 



« 

-*- 

c 

V 

o 



/ 


"^ 
















/ 


^ 


' 














/ 




V 


















\ 


\ 






i- 


?r Cent 























15 20 . ?5 

Years of Experience 



30 



35 



40 



Fig. 17. — Relative frequencies of different amounts of experience in teaching of 
men teachers in pubhc high schools. The total area between the heavy line 
and the base line equals loo per cent. 



Figure 17 gives the same facts corrected for the tendency to 
rough report and to over report round numbers, and also for the 
tendency to report the length of experience in the present position, 
to report cases of o years inaccurately, and to include the year 
for which the salary reported was received. 

The length of experience ranges, for women, from o years to 
beyond 50, with about two in a hundred who have taught over 
30 years. The median is probably 6 years. That is, probably 
as many public high-school women have taught 7 years or more 



126 



Educat ional A dministration 



25 



o?0 


o 
0)15 

c 

i!io 



A 


















r ' 


\ 


















\ 


















\ 


\ 


















\ 


\, 






^^^= I Per Cent 
\ 










. ,,, 


"^ 











10 



15 ZO 25 

Years of Experience 



30 



35 



40 



Fig. 1 8. — Relative frequencies of different amounts of experience in teaching of 
women teachers in pubHc high schools. 

as have taught 5 years or less. Table 37 gives the facts as re- 
ported. Figure 18 corresponds to Figure 17, giving for women 
the same information that Figure 17 gives for men. 



Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 127 



TABLE 37 

Relative Frequencies of Different Amounts of Experience in Teaching 
IN the Case of Teachers in Secondary Schools as Reported (in Per- 
centages) 



Years of Experience 


Teachers in Pubh'c Secondary 




Teachers in Private Secondary 


in Teaching 


Schools 




Schools 




Men 


Women 


Men 


Women 


Less than i 


2.9" 




5 5 1 






4 




6.4I 




I 


5-2 




6 


8 






6 


6 




7 


4 




2 


5-5 


•25.8 


Q 


4 


■38.6 




10 





35-4 


8 


8 


390 


3 


6.0 




9 









6 


9 




8 


2 




4 


6.2 




7 


9. 






7 


8J 




8 


2 ^ 




5 


7-7^ 




7 


9 






S 


7 




7 


2 




6 


6.3 




6 


7 






4 


9 




7 


2 




7 


6.5 


■29.9 


6 


I 


■28.7 




4 


5 


•24.3 


3 


3 


... 


8 


6.3 
31 J 




4 


8 






5 


I 




7 


2 


9 




3 


2 , 






4 


I 




2-3J 




10-14 


20.4 


151 




14.0 


14.8 


15-19 


12.0 


9.0 




8.0 


9-9 


20-24 


5-9 


51 




8.8 


3-7 


25-29 


2.2 


1-7 




5-7 


2.9 


30-34 


1-7 


1-5 




1.6 


I.O 


35 and over 


1.4 


•4 




2-3 


1.6 



Mew Teachers and Women Teachers Compared} 

Figures 19, 20 and 21 show the differences between men and 
women engaged in pubhc secondary education with respect to 
salaries, amount of education, and amount of experience, as re- 
ported. That men are paid more is of course a familiar fact, but 
that thev have less education as a preparation has been unnoticed, 
and that they remain in teaching so little longer than women is a 
fact which flatly contradicts common opinion. It is also to be 

^ The influence of the sources of error described earlier is so nearly the same for 
men and for women that the comparison may be made from the data as reported 
without risk of any error worth considering. 



128 



Educational Administration 




Fig. 19. — Men and women teachers in public high schools compared with respect 
to salaries. The continuous line incloses the surface of frequency for men's 
salaries. The dotted line incloses the surface of frequency for women's salaries. 
The horizontal scale gives the salaries in hundred of dollars. 

f- 
I 



«=F 



n... 



i 2 



4 5 6 
Years 



=+— 



8 9 Id II. 12 



Fig. 



20. — Men and women teachers in public high schools compared with respect to 
amount oj education. The continuous line refers to men; the dotted line to 
women. The horizontal scale gives the number of years of education beyond 
the elementary school. 



Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 129 

noted that there is not so much difference in the pay for the same 
(or ostensibly the same) work as the average salaries usually 
quoted mislead one into beheving. The average salaries are 
compounded in part of, and overinfluenced by, the few large 




Fig. 21. — Men and women teachers in public high schools compared with respect 
to length of experience in teaching. The continuous line refers to men; the 
dotted line to women. 

salaries paid to heads of departments, principals, and those whom 
we may call ''managing teachers," who, without official recogni- 
tion in title, are expected to do the lion's share in the organization 
and control of the school. All these are much more often men 
than women. Consequently, whereas in our group the average 
salary of a man is about 41 per cent greater than that of a 
woman, the modal salary (that is, the most frequent or most 
typical salary) is only 33.3 per cent greater. 



Public and Private Secondary School Teachers Compared 

It is a well known fact that pubKc secondary education has 
been increasing more rapidly than private in respect to number of 
students, number of teachers, annual expenses, and the like. It 
is therefore of interest to compare the two with respect to the 
present condition of the teaching staff. 

If the reports from public high schools in general and from 



130 Educational Administration 

private high schools in general are compared, one gets the follow- 
ing results : The pubKc high school men teachers are paid about 
a tenth less and have had, roughly, a half year less of education. 
The pubHc high school women teachers, on the contrary, are paid 
about a tenth more than the private high school women, and 
have had, roughly, a year more of education. In length of expe- 
rience there is no appreciable difference. 

But such a comparison may be misleading, if taken at its face 
value, for two reasons. First, a much smaller proportion of the 
private schools send the information, and, as already remarked, 
there are good reasons for beheving that those which withhold 
it are not quite so well off in the pay they give to their teachers 
or the amount of education which their teachers have received 
as those which do report. In the second place, the less well paid 
and less well trained teachers in the public high schools are found 
in the rural high schools with one or two teachers. In one sense 
it is fair to compare these schools with the private high schools 
and academies, as they are both cooperating in secondary educa- 
tion. In another sense it is not fair, because the private schools 
often require residence away from home at a distance. Under the 
same conditions the pupils of public high schools could attend a 
public high school much better equipped than the one-teacher or 
two-teacher schools in their immediate neighborhood. That is, 
to make the comparison by the general census perfectly fair, 
there should be private high schools distributed geographically 
in just the same fashion as the pubKc high schools. 

I have, therefore, made the comparison by taking public and 
private secondary schools where both exist in the same locahty, 
asking, that is, the question, '' In any one city, will the pupil who 
attends the local public secondary school be taught by a staff as 
well paid and as well educated as the pupil attending the local 
private secondary school?" Since the matter is not one of 
very great importance to educational welfare, I have measured 



Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in United States 131 

the difference in only 19 cities. The fact in these is, with almost 
entire uniformity, that the staff of the public school is better 
paid. Whether each city is given a weight proportional to its 
size or is weighted hke all the others, the general result is found 
that the public high school man is paid at least 15 per cent more 
than the private high school man, and the public high school 
woman at least 30 per cent more than the private high school 
woman. The facts appear in Table 38. The pubHc high school 
teachers in these cities have also had a more extended education 
though, in view of the influences described on pages 11 7-1 19, it 
is not possible to assign an exact percentage. 

TABLE 38 

Relative Frequencies of Different Salaries in Public and Private Second- 
ary Schools in the Same Localities. Percentages Estimated from 
Nineteen Cities 



Salaries 



Less than $500. 
$500 to $999. . . 
$1,000 to $1,499 
$1,500 to $1,999 
$2,000 and over. 



Men 



Public Private 

Schools Schools 



O 

4 

34 

31 

31 



I 
24 
32 
22 
21 



Women 



Public 
Schools 



I 
26 

49 
21 

3 



Private 
Schools 



§ 13- The Influence of the Sex Balance of the Teaching 
Staff upon High School Enrollment ^ 

It always is, or should be, interesting to put speculations about 
education to the test of facts. The result often is, or should be, 
a warning to us against the intellectual crime of giving mere 
opinions where indolence is our only excuse for failing to verify 
them. 

In the present article I propose to seek light on the very com- 
mon opinion that the ratio of boys to girls in high schools, and in 
particular in the later grades of high schools, can be largely in- 
creased by increasing the percentage of men teachers in these 
schools. 

The first question of fact which will be answered is: "Do the 
high schools which, while roughly alike in other respects, differ 
greatly in the proportion of male teachers, show corresponding 
differences in the proportion of male students?" The data 
used will be the statistics of public high schools in the 1906 Re- 
port of the U. S. Commissioner of Education. To get groups 
roughly alike, I omit, of course, schools for boys only or for 
girls only, manual training high schools, even though a few girls 
may be enrolled, and also, to avoid the possible admixture 
(through error) of teachers whose work is really in the elementary 
schools, all schools reported as having fewer than six secondary 
teachers. Further I keep separate the schools of each size, 
though in the summaries reported in the tables this separation 
is abandoned to save space and add to clearness. 

I shall in general measure the proportion of boys among the 

1 This section is quoted with some abbreviation of tables, from an article with 
the same title in the Educational Review of Jan., '09 (Vol. XXXVII, No. I), b}' 
Edward L. Thorndike. 

132 



TABLE 39 

Sample of the Data and Calculations in the Case of the Relation of the 
Proportion of Male Teachers to the Proportion of Male Students 
in Public High Schools. Twelve-Teacher Schools 















Percentage 














which the 




Number 


Number 


Percentage 


Number 


Number 


Number of 
Female Stu- 
dents is of 
the Number 


School 


of Male 


of Female 


of Male 


of Male 


of Female 




Teachers 


Teachers 


Teachers 


Students 


Students 














of Male 














Students 


I 


I 


II 


8.3 


128 


210 


164 


2 


2 


10 


16.7 


167 


162 


97 


3 


3 


9 


25 


165 


171 




4 


3 


9 




III 


IIO 










Sums 


= 276 


281 


102 


S 


4 


8 


33-3 


93 


132 




6 


4 


8 




137 


153 




7 


4 


8 




146 


179 




8 


4 


8 




121 


215 




9 


4 


8 




100 


145 




lO 


4 


8 




^33 


162 




II 


4 


8 




130 


238 










Sums 


= 860 


1224 


142 


12 


5 




41-7 


125 


152 




13 


5 






104 


137 




14 


5 






119 


154 




15 


5 






145 


138 




i6 


5 






124 


134 




17 


5 






80 


98 




i8 


5 






113 


128 




19 


5 






126 


187 




20 


5 






109 


147 




21 


5 






129 


243 










Sums 


= 1174 


1518 


129 


22 


6 


6 


50 


123 


200 




23 


6 


6 




98 


116 




24 


6 


6 




100 


143 




25 


6 


6 




165 


176 




26 


6 


6 




96 


172 




2 7 


6 


6 




115 


118 










Sums 


= 697 


925 


133 


28 


7 


5 


58-3 


147 


164 




29 


7 


5 




172 


215 










Sums 


=-- 319 


379 


119 


30 


9 


3 


75 


.7. 


215 


25 



^33 



134 



Educational A dministration 



TABLE 40 

The Relation of the Sex-Balance of the Staff to the Sex-Balance of the 
Student Enrollment in Public High Schools of from 6 to 16 Teachers 







(U 


CJ 


4)-— J-j-i tfi 


aj 


>- 1 1) 


4J 


I- 1 i, ,. 


■in 








— S^ -i-i 




OJ <U l-i ,/> 




aj (U iL tn 




i 


"c3 


E 


1:1 £ 




-ill 


^S2 


mi 


1) 




^1 


ll 


If .J 


^1 






^^-13 


in 


in 


il 


ll 


il^^>< 








^u E 


"^ 


Iz; 


!z; 


^ 


j5 


CLi 


u 


pi 


u 





II 


125 


I7S 


142 





158 


0-35 


143 





8 


72 


133 


185 













7 


113 


159 


141 













6 


271 


450 


166 










I 


12 


171 


213 


125 


8-17 


146 






I 


II 


128 


210 


164 










1 


10 
















I 


9 


100 


118 


118 










I 


8 


829 


1,355 


163 










I 


7 


1,158 


1,626 


140 










2 


14 


309 


519 


168 










2 


13 


177 


241 


136 










I 


6 


1,690 


2,403 


142 










2 


12 


399 


559 


140 










2 


II 


414 


755 


182 










I 


5 


2,741 


3,942 


144 


17-24 


145 






2 


10 


167 


162 


97 










2 


9 


963 


1,338 


139 










3 


13 


538 


843 


157 










2 


8 


1,046 


1,635 


156 










3 


12 


516 


629 


122 










3 


II 


682 


967 


145 










2 


7 


1,633 


2,364 


145 










3 


10 


1,242 


1,756 


141 










2 


6 


1,968 


2,863 


145 


25-29 


143-5 






3 


9 


276 


281 


102 










4 


12 


162 


291 


180 










4 


II 


638 


1,045 


164 










3 


8 


945 


1,489 


158 










2 


5 


2,870 


3,974 


138 










4 


10 


897 


1,155 


129 










3 


7 


2,129 


2,893 


136 


30-35 


140.5 






4 


9 


314 


351 


112 










5 


II 


209 


221 


106 










2 


4 


6,130 


8,735 


142 










3 


6 


1,564 


2,358 


151 








■ 



The Influence of the Sex-balance of the Teaching Staff 135 



TABLE 40 — Continued 



ii 


ii 


ii 


Ji 


i^-c^^ 


ru 


■" i *" 7) 


Ji 


Si y . 


^1 


1 
2 

11 


"0 


13 

i 

c 

51 


11 1 
tfl g 


0^ 


■yi (L> 


II 




Ih 


Ih 


il 


i^ 


icj^^s^s 


S^ 


^u 6 


S^H 


goio 


"/Z 


12; 


12; 


^ 


z 


f^ 


u 


^ 


CJ 


4 


8 


860 


1,224 


142 










5 


10 


342 


396 


116 










5 


9 


396 


591 


149 










4 


7 


2,098 


2,780 


133 


36-40 


142 


36-40 


142 


3 


5 


3,101 


4,656 


ISO 










6 


10 


1,094 


1,474 


135 










5 


8 


465 


615 


132 










4 


6 


858 


1,269 


148 










6 


9 


177 


260 


147 






41-91 


140 



The original table continues up to schools with 91 per cent of their teachers men, 
184,000 students being recorded. For the schools having from 40 to 91 per cent of 
their teachers men, the female students stand to the males in the ratio of 140 to 100. 



Students indirectly by the percentage which the girls enrolled 
are of the boys, as this saves much computation. 

Table 39 shows the nature of the data used and the calculations 
made by one sample. 

Table 40 summarizes the facts from schools with from six to 
sixteen teachers, inclusive. 

Table 40 shows that there is only a very, very slight direct 
relation between the proportion of male teachers and the propor- 
tion of male students. With the 184,000 students recorded, the 
percentage of boys is less than 4 per cent more amongst the 
84,607 in schools with from 40 per cent to 91 per cent of men 
teachers than amongst the 81,527 in schools with from o per cent 
to 35 per cent. The very few schools with no men teachers at all 
and those with over half of the staff men show decided differences, 
but the numbers are too small to be used as reliable evidence. 
Schools with from 30 to 50 per cent of men teachers show no 



136 Educational Administration 

change in the percentage of boys. The general drift of the relation 
is such as may be expressed as follows : — The central tendency is 
to have 3 out of 8 teachers men and to have 142 girls for every 
100 boys enrolled. For 33 1-3 per cent increase in the proportion 
of male teachers, one finds an increase of less than i per cent in 
the proportion of male students; for 66 2-3 per cent increase in 
the former proportion, one finds an increase of 2 per cent in the 
latter; and for an increase of 100 per cent in the former, an in- 
crease of 4 or 5 per cent in the latter. Where the former propor- 
tion is halved the proportion of male students drops only about 
I per cent and where it is reduced to a third, the drop in the 
latter is less than 2 per cent. 

I have also computed the facts in the case of the 42 schools of 
13 or more teachers (in 1906) having a percentage of male teachers 
of 24 or under and the 41 such schools having a percentage of 
male teachers of 47 or over. Although on the average the latter 
group have two and a half times as high a percentage of male 
teachers, they have a percentage of male students hardly any 
higher and a percentage of male graduates which is decidedly 
lower than is found in the schools with few men teachers. The 
facts are: 

Schools with Schools with 

from II to 24 from 47 to 6,s 

Per Cent of Male Per Cent of Male 

Teachers Teachers 

Number of male students 9,ii7 9,210 

Number of female students 12,687 12,667 

Number of male graduates 986 746 

Number of female graduates 1,480 i,444 

Per cent of male students 42 — 42+ 

Per cent of male graduates 40 34 

Evidently the influence of the proportion of male teachers 
upon the proportion of male students, even when combined with 
whatever unreasoning tendency there is for school boards to pro- 
vide a larger share of men teachers when the enrollment consists 
largely of boys and with the tendency of certain communities to 



The Influence of the Sex-balance of the Teaching Stajf 137 

look with disfavor on the feminization of both the teaching pro- 
fession and the school population, is very slight. 

Its influence upon the proportion of each sex remaining through 
the high school might still, however, be demonstrable. The fact 
here could be best ascertained by a calculation of the correlation 
between the percentage of male teachers and a rather complex 

ratio, namely = in which B4 equals the enrollment of boys in 

the fourth year of high school, Bj the enrollment of boys in the 
first year of high school, G4 the enrollment of girls in the fourth 
year of high school, Gi the enrollment of girls in the first year of 
high school. The calculation of this ratio for each school or group 
of schools with the same percentage of male teachers would, 
however, be a very laborious procedure and could at the best be 
done in the case of only the small proportion of schools which 
report enrollment by grades in the 1907 Report of the U. S. 
Bureau of Education. I have, therefore, taken a somewhat less 
significant but more easily and more widely available measure, 
namely the ratio which the male graduates are of the total gradu- 
ates, using the data of the 1906 Report of the U. S. Commissioner 
of Education. 

I shall then answer this second question of fact: ''Do the high 
schools which differ greatly in the proportion of male teachers 
show corresponding differences in the proportion of male gradu- 
ates?" 

Table 41 summarizes the facts concerning this relationship. 
Of the 9,782 graduates in schools with from o to 33 1-3 per cent 
of their teachers men nearly 37 per cent are boys, and of the 
9,421 graduates in schools with from 35.7 to 91 per cent of their 
teachers men almost exactly 3 7 per cent are boys . The differ- 



138 Educational Administration 

ence is one-third of one per cent. The proportion of male teachers 
thus makes even less difference in the proportion of male gradu- 
ates than in the proportion of male students as a whole. It ap- 
pears, then, that the influence which made the slight correlation 
between the sex ratio of the staff and that of the student body 
was not in the main the attractiveness of men teachers to boys. 
For, in so far as it was that, the relation should be closer for 
graduates upon whom the supposed attractive force would have 
acted from one-half to three and a half years longer. 

These facts are adequate to prove that in the medium sized 
public high schools of the country the proportion of boys who go 
to or stay through high school is almost or wholly irrespective of 
the percentage of men on the staff of the school. But since there 
is an independent body of evidence available which is interesting 
from other points of view as well as our present one, I shall pre- 
sent it also. This evidence is the change for each school in the 
percentage of male teachers in recent years taken in connection 
with the change for each school (i) in the percentage of male 
students and (2) in the percentage of male graduates. We may, 
that is, get the answer to the question: ''To what extent have the 
schools which have been most feminized in their staffs been also 
most feminized in their student body and in their body of gradu- 
ates?" I shall, in answering it, use first the reports of 1896 and 
1906 for the co-educational public high schools (excluding even- 
ing high schools) in cities where there is one general high school 
of 12 or more teachers (in 1906). 



The Influence of the Sex-balance of the Teaching Staf 139 



TABLE 41 



The Relation of the Sex-balance of the Staff to the Sex-b\lance of the 
Graduates (for 1906) in Public High Schools of from 6 to iO Teachers ^ 



<u 








0) 


I D-o-*- tn 


1) 


U < VI t 


OJ 


L< 1 in 1 










•^0 u 




1> D-C 




U <U D-C 




i 


S 


i 


mi 





3r5 








A 






0^ 






°--2 i, 2 


tn en 




Ih 


Ih 


15 


io 


|c5l'S5 


^H 


£i S rt o-j^ 

^U 6 rt 3 


Si= 


gulls 


:^ 


:2; 


^ 


y^ 


:^ 


C^ 


c5 


Ah 


u 





II 


7 


15 


214 





212 


0-33 -3 


173— 





8 


6 


II 


183 













7 


7 


9 


129 













6 


28 


67 


239 










I 


12 


15 


19 


127 


8-17 


169 






I 


II 


10 


36 


360 










I 


10 
















I 


9 


10 


15 


ISO 










I 


8 


56 


114 


204 










I 


7 


94 


181 


193 










2 


14 


41 


52 


127 










2 


13 


23 


2>S 


152 










I 


6 


185 


282 


152 










2 


12 


44 


75 


171 










2 


II 


40 


80 


200 










I 


5 


32>2 


573 


173 


17-24 


I So 






2 


10 


12 


13 


108 










2 


9 


87 


159 


183 










3 


13 


52 


96 


185 










2 


8 


97 


212 


208 










3 


12 


45 


79 


176 










3 


II 


87 


139 


160 










2 


7 


156 


282 


181 










3 • 


10 


180 


243 


135 


23-29 


174 






2 


6 


169 


351 


208 










3 


9 


49 


46 


94 










4 


12 


18 


27 


150 










4 


II 


61 


123 


202 










3 


8 


52 


lOI 


194 











^The schools reported in Table 41 are not identical with those reported in 
Table 40, since (i) the number of graduates is less often recorded in the Report of 
the U. S. Comm. of Education, and (2) the labor of calculation was somewhat 
lightened by omitting at random a fourth of the schools of from six to eleven 
teachers. 



I40 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 41 — Conlmued 



1 

-J 






t 

-I 


r of Female 

uates Divided 

Number of 

Graduates 

0) 


'A 
"0 


•onding Per 

i which Fe- 

Graduates 

'. Male Grad- 


"0 

IS 


onding Per 

1 which Fe- 

Graduates 

' Male Grad- 


I2 


^^ 


^^ 


-^1 


^^ -^2 


^ ^ 


tcii°S 


ol 


^^ii ° s 


1^ 


Ih 


§0 


io 


ic^'ix 


S 


guirg 


feH 


gul-^i 


I2; 


'A 


'A 


'A 


2; 


fij 


CJ 


fi. 


u 


2 


5 


277 


521 


188 










4 


10 


95 


153 


161 










3 


7 


202 


350 


173 


30-35 


166 






4 


9 


21 


58 


276 










5 


II 


27 


35 


130 










2 


4 


704 


1,168 


166 










3 


6 


169 


292 


173 










4 


8 


103 


138 


134 










5 


10 


27 


44 


116 










5 


9 


43 


69 


161 










4 


7 


225 


427 


190 


36-40 


180 






3 


5 


334 


681 


204 










6 


10 


147 


189 


129 










5 


8 


60 


103 


172 










4 


6 


95 


153 


161 










. 6 


9 


15 


23 


163 






35-7-91 


171+ 



The original table continues up to schools with 91 per cent of their teachers 
men. The per cents of female graduates corresponding to per cents of male teachers, 
41-49) 5^> 53-59; and 60-91, are respectively 176, 162, 161 and 171. 

The quantities whose relationships are to be measured are 
three ratios for each school: 

I. The ratio of the change in the number of men teachers to the 
change in the number of women teachers, the changes being 
measured by percentile increments. 

II. The ratio of the change in the number of male students to 
the change in the number of female students, the changes being 
measured by percentile increments. 

III. The ratio of the change in the number of male graduates 
to the change in the number of female graduates, the changes 
being measured by percentile increments. 



The Influence of the Sex-balance of the Teaching Staff 141 

These somewhat complex verbal descriptions represent, of 
course, the following arithmetical expressions: 

I. M. T. '06. 11. M. S. '06. Ill 



M. 


, S. 


'06. 


M. 


, S. 


'96. 


F. 


s. 


'06. 



M. 


G. 


'06. 


M. 


G. 


'96. 


F. 


G. 


'06. 



M. T. '96. 

F. T. ^o6. 

F. T. '96. F. S. '96. F. G. '96. 

In which M. T., M. S., and M. G. stand for Male Teachers, Male Students, and 
Male Graduates respectively, and F. T., F. S., and F. G. stand for Female Teachers, 
Female Students, and Female Graduates. 

The 204 schools examined show an enormous range of difference 
in the feminization of the staffs — from a case where 8 men and 2 
women have been replaced by 7 men and 10 women (that is, a 
ratio of .11) to a case where i man and 15 women have been 
replaced by 15 men and 16 women (that is, a ratio of 14.10). 
The central tendency is to a change of 88 per cent as much in 
men as in women. 

The range of difference in the feminization^ of the student 
body is of course less, but is still large, roughly from a ratio of 
.60 to one of 2.00. 

The exact relation between the changes in staff and the changes 
in the student body is not clear in spite of the fact that the data 
include (for 1906) over 100,000 students. The facts are summar- 
ized in Table 42. In general it is clear from them that the addi- 
tion of men teachers has made very little difference, and very 
likely none at all, in the proportion of male students. The same, 
but to a less degree, is true in the case of the relation between 
changes in the sex-balance of the stafT and changes in the sex- 
balance of the graduates. The facts are summarized in Table 43. 

^ In these large schools the boys increased somewhat more than did the girls dur* 
ing the ten years in question. The country over, the girls increased about one per 
cent more. 



142 



Educational Administration 



The work of calculation of these relationships is so excessively 
tedious, especially ior sinall schools, that I have not attempted 
to measure the fact in enough more schools to make the deter- 
minations final and precise within, say, i per cent. But I have 
supplemented them by similar calculations for the schools which 
had lo or II teachers in 1906, for 50 schools (taken at random) 
which had 6 teachers in 1896, and for 33 schools in Massa- 
chusetts which had 4, 5, or 6 teachers in 1896. The facts in 
these cases are summarized in Table 44. 

TABLE 42 



Relation of Changes in the Sex Balance of the Staffs of Public High 
Schools to Changes in the Sex Balance of the Student Body. In 
204 Large High Schools. 



Change in Sex Balance of 


Change 


in Sex Balance of 




the Teaching Staff: 


the Student Body: 


Number of Students, in 


M. T. '06 , F. T. '06 


M. S. 


'06 , F. S. '06 


1906, Involved in the 


M. T. '96 • F. T. '96 


mTsT 


'96 ' F. S. '96 


Computation 


0- .29 




I. 16 


3,209 


•30- 


49 




I .04 


4,985 


•50- 


69 




1.07 


21,393 


.70- 


89 




■975 


21,272 


.90-1 


09 




1 .10 


18,895 


I . lO-I 


29 




1. 18 


11,566 


I. 30-1 


49 




1 .04 


7,222 


I . 50-1 


69 




1. 115 


6,815 


I . 70-1 


99 




1 . 10 


5,119 


2 . 00 and over 




1.23 


10,653 


Under 70 




1.08 


29,587 


1.30 and over 




I-I15 


29,799 


0- .70 




1.08 




.70-1.29 




1.06 




I. 30-1. 99 




1.08 




2.00 and over 




I 23 





TItc Influence of the Sex-balance of the Teaching StaJJ 143 

TABLE 43 

The Relation of Changes in the Sex Balance of the Staffs of Public 
High Schools to Changes in the Sex Balance of Their Graduates. 
In 204 Large High Schools. 



Change in Sex balance of 


Change 


in Sex Balance of 




the Teaching Staff: 




the 


Graduates: 


Number of Graduates, in 
1906, Involved in the 


M. T. '06 F. T. '06 


M 


(; 


'06 . F. G. '06 


M. T. '96 ■ F. T. '96 


M 


G. 


'96 ' F. G. '96 


Comparison 


0- . 29 






1.07 


453 


•30- 


49 






.89 


609 


•50- 


69 






.96 


2,321 


.70- 


89 






1. 00 


2,483 


.90-1 


09 






I. 18 


1,584 


I . lO-I 


29 






I. 41 


1,193 


1. 30-1 


49 






1-33 


745 


1 . 50-1 


69 






1.28 


740 


I . 70-1 


99 






1-53 


622 


2 . 00 and over 






•925 


976 


Under .70 






.96 


3,383 


1 . 30 and over 






1.22 


3,083 


0- .70 






.96 




.70-1.29 






I 135 




I. 30-1. 99 






I 36 




2 . 00 and over 






925 





TABLE 44 

The Relation of Changes in the Sex Balance of the Staff to Changes in 
THE Sex Balance of the Student Body and Graduates. Summary 
of Additional Data. 





M. T. '06 F. T. '06 


M.S. 


'06 F. S. 


'06 
•96 


M. G. '06 , F. G. '06 




M. T. '96 "^ F. T. '96 


M. S. 


'96 ^ F. S. 


M. G. '96 ' F. G. '96 


Schools of 10 and 11 
teachers in '06. 


j 0- .95 
i .96-00 




■97 

I . ID 




1.02 
I. 215 


Schools of 6 teachers 
in '96. 


r 0- .70 
.70- .99 
1 I .00-1 .49 
[ 1 . 50-00 




.91 

I -13 

1.085 

1.08 




•93 
.81 

1-055 
I. 12 


Massachusetts schools 
of 4, 5 or 6 teachers 
in '96. 


f 0- .99 
■ 1 . 00-OQ 

I 




I 05 
I 05 




.85 
•77 



144 Educational Administration 

Taking all these facts together, it seems safe to say that in 
these larger schools changes of staff expressed by the ratios .50 
and 2.00 (for instance, a change from 5 men and 5 women to 
5 men and 10 women or from 5 men and 5 women to 10 men and 
5 women) are not accompanied by corresponding changes in the 
student body of much more than 5 minus or plus (for instance, 
from 100 boys and 100 girls to 100 boys and 105 girls and to 105 
boys and 100 girls. 

In the case of the graduates the figures for similar changes in 
staff would be perhaps 7 plus or minus. 

The possible influence of men teachers in attracting boys and 
holding them through the high school course, the possible influence 
of a habit of letting the sex balance of a school count as a reason 
for choosing a new teacher from one sex rather than the other, 
the influence of the addition of studies specialized for the sexes 
(such as manual training and domestic science) which, so far, 
are taught almost exclusively hy the same sex that they are taught 
to, and other similar influences, have not all together been strong 
enough to account for more than a small fraction of the very 
great changes in the sex balance of these high schools. The 
influence first named must certainly have been very slight, for 
the one last named is real and must have been the cause of part 
of the slight correlation found. 

The measurements made are perhaps even more interesting 
from other points of view than that of the attempt to verify 
or refute the opinion that replacing women teachers by men 
would help largely to turn the sex balance in our secondary 
schools. 

As the author has in several instances shown, the variability 
of our schools, cities, states, and institutions in respect to different 
features of educational work is very instructive. It is in the 
present case. Taking such high schools as are in each case the 
only pubHc secondary schools in the city or town and should do, 



The Ififluence of the Sex-balance of the Teaching Staff 145 

therefore, the general work of secondary education for the com- 
munity, we find that for medium sized and large schools the 
percentage of male teachers varies from o to 75 and over. Are 
the extremes justifiable, each really adapted to the special needs 
of that community, or are they due to ignorance and caprice? 
We find that some schools have only half as high a percentage 
of boys as do others. Is this because the boys in these communi- 
ties need education less, or because poverty debars boys from 
school so much more than girls, or because of an unwise admin- 
istration of the school? If poverty does debar boys in excess, 
ought it to? We find that from '96 to '06 some cities have vastly 
increased the proportion of women on their high school staffs while 
others have vastly increased the proportion of men. Were both 
right because of local needs? Which group was right? Were 
perhaps both groups wrong? 

We are not, at present, able to judge the worth of the feminiza- 
tion of secondary and higher education from its results. There 
is an intellectual difficulty in the absence of facts and an emo- 
tional difficulty in the presence of prejudices. But we could in 
part judge it by its relations — by what it goes with. And since 
a student of education who has got the abifity to measure variable 
relationships commonly has had sufficient scientific experience to 
elevate him above conventional prejudices, this method might well 
be more impartially used than the direct method. The following 
questions can all be answered by energy and care: How do the 
most feminized and the most rapidly being feminized schools 
stand, in comparison with their opposites (in both present con- 
dition and recent progress), with respect to cost per pupil, number 
of teachers per hundred pupils, per cent of population enrolled, 
course of study, laboratory, library, and technical equipment, 
and other symptoms of efficiency? How do the communities in 
which they are stand (in both present condition and recent prog- 
ress) with respect to pubHc health protection, street lighting, 



146 Educational Administration 

infant mortality, parks and libraries, provision of kindergartens 
and evening schools, crime, and the like? 

Finally I may call attention to the fact that comparative 
studies of the changes in the school work of individual cities dur- 
ing the past ten, twenty, or thirty years are likely to be even more 
instructive than the comparisons of present status to which we 
have been accustomed to confine our attention. The latter por- 
tion of the present article is, I beheve, the first attempt to use on 
a large scale the statistics of educational changes measured sepa- 
rately for each city or other educational unit. 

Only those schools were taken v/hich were co-educational, and 
which represented the entire system of public secondary educa- 
tion in the community. There were 204 in all, so that the com- 
parison concerns roughly the top and bottom fifths with respect 
to the sex balance of the staff. The same method is available 
for far more important problems than that of the sex balance in 
schools. It should be applied to all administrative problems. An 
apparent lack of change in the country as a whole may be the 
result of enormous, but opposite, changes in different localities 
or institutions; and, of course, apparent general change in one 
direction may conceal similar enormous individual differences. 
By individualizing the measurements of change for different 
features of educational practice and correlating them, we may 
learn vastly more of their nature, and, under certain conditions, 
of their value. 



PART III 

STUDIES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS AND 
COURSES OF STUDY 



§ 14- The Elementary School Curriculum 

The ends which we seek in education are reaHzed by means of 
the curriculum, the methods of instruction and the organization 
and management of our schools. When schools were concerned 
primarily with the three R's, education was largely a matter of 
experience received outside of the schoolroom. It was inevitable 
that with the changed social conditions, the content of the school 
curriculum should be greatly increased. That the curriculum 
is the result of a demand originating outside of the teaching 
profession is shown clearly in Professor W. A. Jessup's "Social 
Factors Affecting Special Supervision." A part of his concluding 
statement follows : 

''We have seen that the pressure which brought about the in- 
troduction of music was generated by the organization of public 
sentiment by people outside the school. The rapid introduction 
of drawing was traced to the influence of the public opinion di- 
(rected by the manufacturers of Massachusetts and elsewhere. 
Economic and humanitarian forces united in consciously creating 
a pressure which resulted in the introduction of manual training 
and domestic science. The sudden rise in interest in physical 
education in the early nineties was traced to the organized ac- 
tivities of the German Turners, the Christian Associations and 
private munificence. While penmanship had a special value 
within the schoolroom, it did not take its place as a sine qua non 
until pressure was brought to bear from outside agitation. 

''All of this is a striking commentary on the character of the 
school as a public institution and on its responsiveness to public 
opinion and certainly points clearly to the conclusion that these 
modifications in the curriculum have largely come from without 

149 



ISO 



Educational Administration 



rather than from within the school group. The administrator 
who aspires to genuine leadership in school affairs surely cannot 
afford to neglect the conscious organization of public sentiment 
as one of his most powerful means of attainment of ends. The 
school is being constantly subjected to outside pressure and the 
superintendent must either yield to these forces or direct them. 
It is true that the factor of imitation has been operative in the 
later introduction so that in many cases the desire to be ' abreast 
of the times' has brought about the introduction of new subject 
matter irrespective of the fact that there was neither a public 
demand for this nor a clear conception of the purpose involved. 
However, since this refers to the later development, it does not 
affect the conclusions above. . . . 

'' We have seen the organized efforts of the Boston Academy of 
Music; the petition of the Massachusetts manufacturers, urging 
legislation relative to drawing, the New York Industrial Educa- 
tion Association spreading the propaganda for manual training 
and domestic science; the German Turners and others putting 
forth the claims for physical education. We have likewise noted 
that in almost every instance the expense of the initial experiment 
was borne by these organizations. After a further preparation of 
the public mind and proving the possibiHty of the venture, the 
second step was to effect joint control between the advocates 
of the new movement and the regular school authorities, followed 
by the complete adoption at public expense. In view of the facts 
presented in this study it would seem quite possible to introduce 
almost anything into the schools provided a few influential people 
became sufficiently interested to furnish the necessary funds for 
the development of public sentiment. This plan has met with 
uniform success in the past irrespective of the subject involved or 
the size of the city." 

We are to-day adding industrial training to our curriculum 
beyond the sixth year and again the demand has come largely 



The Elementary School Curriculum 151 

from those who employ skilled labor. The current agitation for 
rehgious and moral training is due primarily to the fact that the 
church and the home are doing less for children in this field and 
that parents and religious leaders are hoping that the school will 
be able to make good this deficiency. 

Along with the increase in the content of the curriculum has 
come the cry of "fads and frills" from those who see Httle signif- 
icance in those aspects of school work which are not directly 
related to making a living. A more significant criticism, current 
among teachers and other careful students of education, declares 
that the curriculum is overcrowded. More time is needed for 
the more comprehensive training which the school attempts to 
give to-day. The curriculum is overcrowded largely because we 
are attempting to give in school in a five hour day the training 
which once occupied the greater part of the child's waking hours. 
The longer school day has already been introduced in many 
industrial schools which have the eight hour day. We may ex- 
pect that a school which attempts to teach the three R's, geog- 
raphy, history, nature study, music, drawing, industrial and 
household arts and which plans at the same time to be respon- 
sible for the recreation of children will demand more than five 
hours a day. 

The problem of the curriculum is not simply. What shall be 
included in the curriculum? but also, When shall each subject be 
begun and what part of the subject shall be assigned to each of 
the grades in which it is found? and, How much time shall be 
devoted to each subject in each grade? Dr. Bruce R. Payne's 
['05] careful investigation of "Elementary School Curricula^" 
contains interesting data, a part of which is presented in the 
tables taken from his book presented below. ^ 

^ Payne, B. R., "Public Elementary School Curricula" published by Silver, 
Burdett and Company, 



152 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 45 

'J'he Percentage of Total Tims Ci\t:n to Each Study in the Public Elementary Schools of 

Ten American Cities 









cj 








o 


s 


rt 





e « 


f, 


•^ 


^^ 


« 


u 


u 


u 



tnrl 









•fi 


c 








o 




>^ 


r!,^ 


OS 


>* 


t^8 


6 


■^■> 


I 


l'= 




^ 


'A 


^ 



1 Opening Exercises , 

2 Reading and Literature. 

3 Writing 

4 Spelling 

5 (Grammar 

6 Language 

7 Composition 

8 Arithmetic 

9 Geography 

10 History 

11 Civil Government 

13 Elementary Science 

14 Nature Study 

15 Physiology 

16 Physical Training 

17 Drawing 

x8 Music 

19 Manual Training ■* 



2.9 


1.6 


1-7 


S-i 


23-3 


18.8 


23.6 


16.9 


1 


4.H 


5-4 


4-1 


2.4 


3-3 


5.6 


6.3 


17-7 


II. 9 


16. 1 


18. 1 


16.2 


18.6 


17-^ 


18.6 


S-S 


6.1 


6.2 


10.7 


3.6 


4-7 


3 


3.7 


4-5 


6.2 


1.4 

2.3 




6 


i-?, 


3-5 




7-1 


4.8 


5 


4.2 


4.3 


4.9 


4.9 


4.3 


5.« 


1. 5 


2.3 


4.4 



3.7 
30 

6.8 
2 



I0.3 

IQ-S 

6.7 

3.6 



I 
14-5 

9.6 
10.7 



1.9 
23-9 
4.6 

5-7 



12.5 
17.2 
9.8 



2.7 
• 7 
2.4 
6.4 
5-5 



1. 5 


S-7 


4.4I 


13-4 


1 20.2 


1 4-1 


S.5I S.I 


5-1 


2.9 


7.2 


!i7.6 


30. q 


13-7 


1 18.6 


12 


15-3 


H.9 


4-3| 6.91 


S7 


4-3 


6.6 


4.S 


5.6 


3-9 


1-7 


2 




3.6 


8 


4.1 


4-1 


9.0 


5 


4.3 


4.0 


5-3 




5-4 


4 



31 

20.7 
4-7 

4-7 



•4 

17-3 

7.2 



3-4 
• 7 
4-7 
6.4 
S-i 
2.4 



1 Included with language. 

2 Included with reading. 

3 Included with nature study. 
* Includes cooking and sewing. 



TABLE 46 

The Average Time in Minutes per Week Given to Each Subject in Each Grade in Ten 

American Cities 



Grade 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


I Opening Exercises 


43 

443 

80 

47 

130 

161 

II 

s 

35 

7 
52 
75 
67 
16 


43 

404 

78 

90 

146 

19s 

20 

5 

35 
7 
49 
85 
71 
18 


91 
81 

144 
232 

53 

5 

34 
8 

68 
19 


40 

373 

79 

73 

158 
239 
156 

17 

46 
8 
49 
82 
68 
7,?, 


40 

232 

62 

67 

176 
241 
164 

41 

51 
13 
42 
86 
67 
30 


40 
160 
62 
62 

224 
249 
150 

171 

44 
13 
37 
92 
67 
30 


40 
142 

28 

44 

254 
242 
127 

152 

37 
78 
64 
50 


40 


2 Reading and Literature 


3 Writing 




4 Spelling 




5 Grammar 

6 Language and 

7 Composition 


256 


8 Arithmetic 


9 Geography 


81 
160 


ID History and 

11 Civil Government 


13 Elementary Science and 

14 Nature Study 


15 Physiology 


8 


16 Physical Training 


17 Drawing 




18 Music 


64 


19 Manual Training 






Total Assignments 


1174 


1250 


128s 


1401 


1313 


1404 


1327 






124s 



The Elementary School Curriculum 



153 



The Average Percentage of Recitation Time Given to Each Subject in Each Grade in Ten 

American Citiks 



1 Opening Exercises 

2 Reading and Literature. 

3 Writing 

4 Spelling 

5 Grammar 

6 Language and 

7 Composition 

8 Arithmetic 

9 Geography 

10 History, etc 

13 Elementary Science, etc. 

15 Physiology 

16 Physical Training 

17 Drawing 

18 Music 

19 Manual Training 



3 


6 


3.4 


3.4 


3-5 


2.9 


2.9 


2.9 


37-3 


31. a 


28.7 


20.6 


17 


12.2 


10.4 


b.7 


6.1 


7.1 


5.9 


4-5 


4.5 


2 


3Q 


7-1 


b.3 


5-5 


4.9 


4.6 


3-2 


10 


10. 1 


10. 1 


10. 1 


10. 2 


16. s 


18.6 


13 


6 


15-4 


18.2 


18 


17.6 


1H.3 


17.7 




Q 


1-5 


4.1 


II. 8 


12 


II. I 


9-3 




4 


■ 4 


• 4 


1.2 


3 


5-2 


II. I 


2 





2.8 


2.6 


3-4 


3-7 


3-2 


4.2 




5 


.6 


.6 


.6 


•9 


•9 


.6 


4 


3 


3-9 


3-9 


3-7 


3 


2.7 


2.7 


6 


?, 


6.Q 


6.8 


6.1 


6.2 


6.7 


5-7 


5 


6 


5.6 


5.3 


5-1 


4-9 


4-9 


4.6 


I 


3 


1.4 


1.4 


2.5 


2.1 


2.2 


3.6 



2.9 

9-5 
1.6 

2.4 



3.6 
.6 

2.7 
5.6 
4-7 
8.6 



154 



Educational Administration 



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Educational Administration 



TABLE 49 

The Average Recitation Time in Minutes per Week Devoted to Each Subject in Each Grade 

(or Standard) in Ten Cities of England 



Grade 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


I5S 


155 


156 


156 


2IO 


206 


181 


154 


123 


91 


85 


78 


66 


85 


60 


58 


42 


49 


66 


67 


52 


57 


56 


53 


43 


52 


61 


54 


267 


266 


276 


308 


3 


3 


3 


5 


53 


64 


80 


91 


32 


38 


37 


42 


62 


61 


55 


44 


48 


49 


52 


42 


115 


125 


125 


127 


64 


64 


64 


64 


8 


16 


19 


18 


(103) 


(103) 


(106) 


(106) 


(14) 


(14) 


(14) 


(12) 


4 


4 


2 


2 


1.347 


1,369 


1,361 


1,359 



VI 



VII 



VIII 



Pet. 



1 Scripture 

2 Reading 

3 Writing 

4 Spelling 

5 Grammar 

6 Recitation or Literature 

7 Composition 

8 Arithmetic 

Algebra 

9 Geography 

10 History 

12 Object Lessons 

13 Elementary Science . . . 

14 Nature Study 

16 Physical Training 

17 Drawing 

18 Singing 

19 Wood-work 

20 Needle-work 

21 Cooking 

22 French 

Total 



156 
140 
69 
43 
67 
54 
85 
294 
13 
87 
40 



40 

46 

127 

67 

50 

(107) 

(12) 



1,380 



156 
127 
62 
39 
70 
53 
99 
293 
35 



41 

43 

130 

67 

61 

(106) 

(12) 

29 



156 
108 
73 
^3, 
67 
50 
72 
257 
61 
70 
34 



46 

29 

121 

65 

(126) 

(12) 

36 



156 

76 

70 

5 

65 

95 

25 

231 

136 

97 

58 



92 

30 
95 
70 

(157) 



(8.3) 
( .8) 



1,433 



1,359 



1,338 



The Average Percentage of Recitation Time Given to Each Subject in Each Grade in Ten 

Cities of England 



1 Scripture 

2 Reading 

3 Writing 

4 Spelling 

5 Grammar 

6 Recitation or Literature . 

7 Composition 

8 Arithmetic 

Algebra 

9 Geography 

10 History 

13 Elementary Science, etc 

16 Physical Training 

17 Drawing 

18 Singing 

19 Wood-work 

20 Needle-work 

21 Cooking 

22 French 



II 


S 


15 


6 


8 


9 


4 


9 


3 


I 


3 


9 


3 


2 


19 


8 




2 


3 


9 


2 


4 


4 


6 


3 


6 


8 


5 


4 


8 




6 


(7.7) 


(i.i) 




3 



4-5 

3.6 

9.1 

4.6 

1.2 

(7.5) 

( .9) 

•3 



II 


5 


11 


5 


11 


3 


10.9 


13 


3 


II 


3 


10 


2 


8.9 


6 


3 


5 


8 


4 


9 


4-4 


4 


4 


4 


3 


3 


I 


2.7 


4 


9 


4 


9 


4 


9 


4-9 


3 


7 


3 


9 


3 


9 


3.7 


4 


5 


3 


9 


6 


2 


6.9 


19 


9 


22 


7 


21 


3 


20.5 


I 


2 




4 




9 


2.5 


5 


9 


6 


7 


6 


3 


6.2 


2 


7 


3 


I 


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9 


2.8 


4 


I 


3 


3 


3 


9 


2.8 


3 


8 


3 


I 


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4 


3 


9 


2 


9 


4 


9 


2 


9.1 


4 


7 


4 


7 


4 


9 


4.7 




9 







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6 


4.3 


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(7.8) 


(7.8) 


(7.4) 


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( .9) 


( .9) 




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7.9 
5-4 
2.4 
4-9 
3.7 
5.3 
8.9 
4.5 
5-2 
3.4 
3-4 



8.9 
4.8 
5-2 
(9.3) 
( .9) 
2.7 



II. 7 

5-7 

5.2 

.4 

4.9 

7.1 

1.9 

16.5 

10.2 

9-3 

6.9 

6.9 

2.9 

7-1 

5-2 

(10) 



The Elementary School Curriculum 



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Educational A dministration 



TABLE 51 

The Average Recitation Time in Minutes per Week Given to Each Subject in Each Grade 
IN THE Ten German Cities 



Grade 



I Religion 

6 Language i. . 

8 Arithmetic. . . 

9 Geography. . . 

10 History 

14 Nature Study 

16 Gymnastics. . 

17 Drawing. . . . 

18 Singing 

20 Handwork. . . 

Geometry. . . 

Total 



172 

588 

252 

58 



54 

12 

54 

(96) 



199 

603 

282 

47 



36 

42 

54 

(132) 



1,263 



III 



207 

600 

282 

113 

2,5 

80 

60 

54 

93 

(222) 



IV 



234 

567 

282 

115 

60 

66 
1 08 

60 

99 
(234) 

18 



1,609 



246 
513 
270 
III 
103 
100 
132 
120 
93 
(258) 
42 



VI 



246 

501 

270 
III 

103 

140 

132 
114 

93 

(246) 

72 



1,782 



VII 



234 

583 

270 

134 

no 
126 
132 
137 
99 
(258) 
102 



1,822 



VIII 



472 
255 
147 
120 
III 
125 
128 
90 
(278) 
112 

1,788 



Showing the Average Percentage of Recitation Time Given to Each Subject 

IN Ten German Cities 



Each Grade 



I Reh'gion 

6 Language. . . . 

8 Arithmetic. . . 

9 Geography. . . 

10 History 

14 Nature Study 

16 Gymnastics. . 

17 Drawing. . . . 

18 Singing 

20 Handwork. . . 

Geometry. . . 



14-5 
49.4 



4.6 

(7.3) 



2.» 

3-3 
4-3 
(9.3) 



13 


8 


40 




18 


7 


7 


5 


2 


2 


5 


3 


4 




3 


6 


6 


2 


(13 


6) 



14.6 

35-3 

17.6 

7.2 

3.8 

4 

6.7 

3.8 

6.2 

(13.5) 



14.2 


13 


29.7 


28 


IS. 6 


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6.4 


6 


6 


5 


5.8 


7 


7.6 


7 


7 


6 


5-4 


5 


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2.4 


. 4 



13 
26.5 

15-2 

7-4 
6 
7 

7-3 
7-3 
5-4 
(14) 
5.6 



12.3 

26. 5 

15-3 

8.3 

6.8 

6.2 

7.6 

7.2 

5 

(13.5) 

6.5 



1 Language includes reading, writing, spelling, literature and composition. 



The Elementary School Curriculum 



159 






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Educational Administration 



An interesting comparison with Dr. Payne's data is made 
possible by the figures published in the report of the commission 
appointed to study the system of Education in the PubUc Schools 
of Baltimore.^ These results from the larger cities of the country 
showing a wide variabiHty are representative of the prevaihng 
practice in city school systems of smaller size as well. 

''The following table shows the percentage of school time 
allotted in the suggested schedules to the subjects that are gener- 
ally called the essentials, namely, English, including reading, 
writing, spelhng, and language; arithmetic, geography, and 
history, which are here designated as the 'old' subjects. Sim- 
ilar allotments in certain other subjects are also shown, which 
are here designated as 'new' subjects, such as drawing, manual 
training, etc." 

TABLE Si 
Percentage of School Time Devoted to Old Subjects and New Subjects 



Cities 


Old 

Subjects 


New- 
Subjects 


1 

Cities 


Old New 
Subjects Subjects 


New York 

Chicago 

Philadelphia. . . . 

St. Louis 

Boston. 


62.48 
52.60 
67.60 
70.87 
73-36 
79-55 


37-52 
47.40 
32.40 
29. 13 
26 . 64 
20.45 


Baltimore 

Pittsburg 

Detroit 

San PVancisco . . 

Milwaukee 

Cincinnati 


77.90 
81.00 
83.80 
79.90 

75-45 
76.69 


22. 10 
19.00 
16. 20 
20.10 
24.55 
23-31 


Cleveland 



^ U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 4. 191 1. 



The Elementary School Curriculum 



i6i 



TABLE 54 

The Minutes per Week Devoted to the Study of Arithmetic and Algebra 
IN Certain Cities (191 i) 





Year 




Cities 


First 


Sec- 
ond 


Third 


Fourth 


Fifth 


Sixth 


Sev- 
enth 


Eighth 


Total 


New York. . . 

Chicago 

Philadelphia. 
St. Louis .... 

Boston 

Cleveland . . . 
Baltimore . . 
Pittsburg . . . 

Detroit 

San Francisco 
Milwaukee . . 
Cincinnati. . . 


125 

ISO 
100 

25 
60 

250 
60 
75 

150 
75 

150 


150 
ISO 
200 

125 
210 
200 
200 
120 
ISO 
ISO 
100 
250 


ISO 

200 
200 
ISO 
210 
250 
200 
180 
200 
ISO 
ISO 
240 


ISO 
250 
200 
ISO 
270 
250 
200 
200 
225 
200 

17s 
240 


ISO 
ISO 
225 
ISO 
270 
250 
250 
200 
250 
250 
17s 
240 


200 
ISO 
225 
ISO 
230 
250 
250 
240 
250 
250 
200 
300 


200 
ISO 
225 
150 
210 
300 

27s 
300 

27s 
250 
200 
300 


200 
ISO 
225 
150 
210 
300 

27s 
360 

275 
250 
212 
360 


i>325 
1,200 
1,650 

1,125 
1,635 

1,860 
1,900 
1,660 

1,775 
1,650 
1,287 
2,080 



TABLE 5S 

The Percentage of School Time Exclusive of Recesses and Opening Ex- 
ercises Devoted to the Study of Arithmetic and Algebra in the 
Grades, in 1890 and in 1910-11, in Certain Cities 





Year 


Cities 


Year 


Cities 


i8go 1 1910-11 


1890 


IQIO-II 


New York 

Chicago . 


26.2 
9-3 

193 
16.6 
14. 1 
I9-S 


13 
10 
16 
IS 
15 
IS 
18 
18 


4 


I 

5 
S 
3 



Detroit 

Buffalo 

San Francisco .... 

Milwaukee 

Cincinnati 

Average 


17.2 

14.0 
iSS 
13-4 


16.0 


Philadelphia 

St. Louis 

Boston 


16.6 
14.7 
18.8 


Cleveland 

Baltimore 

Pittsburg 




16.5 


15-8 



l62 



Education at A dministration 



TABLE 56 

The Year of the Course in Which Specified Topics in Arithmetic Are 
Treated in the Certain Cities 



Cities 


45 Com- 
binations 
Learned 


Multipli- 
cation 
Tables 

Learned 


Long 
Division 
Taught 


Addition 
and Sub- 
traction 
of Frac- 
tions 
Taught 


Multipli- 
cation 

and Divi- 
sion of 

Fractions 
Taught! 


Decimals 
Taught 


Per- 
centage 
Taught 


New York. . . 


2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

4 
2 


3 

4 
2 

3 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 


3 
4 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 


4 
5 
5 
3 
5 
5 
3 
4 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 


5 
5 
5 
4 
6 
6 
4 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 


5 
6 
6 
4 
5 
5 
4 
5 
5 
5 
4 
6 
4 


6 


Chicago 

Philadelphia 

St. Louis 

Boston 

Cleveland 

Baltimore 

Pittsburg 

Detroit 

Buffalo . 


6 
6 

5 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 


San Francisco 

Milwaukee . 


6 

7 
6 


Cincinnati 



TABLE 57 

The Percentage of the School Time, Exclusive of Opening Exercises and 
Recesses, Devoted to the Study of Geography in Various Cities in 
1890 and in 1910-11 



Cities 


1890 1910-11 


Cities 


1890 


I9I0-II 


New York 

Chicago 

Philadelphia. . . 

St. Louis 

Boston 

Cleveland 

Baltimore 

Pittsburg 


2.7 
4.9 

8.9 
6.8 
6.9 
6.3 


6.2 

4-4 
7.0 

7-3 
6.2 
7.2 
II .0 
9.0 


Detroit 

Buffalo 

San Francisco . . 

Milwaukee 

Cincinnati 

Average 


8.6 

8.9 

6.0 

6.5 


8.2 

7-5 
6.7 
6.1 


6.55 


7-23 



No data at hand. 



'^he Elementary School Curriculum 



^3 



TABLE 58 

The Percentage of Time Devoted to Manual Training in Certain Cities 

IN 1910-11 



City 


Percentage 


CXTV 


Percentage 


New York. . . . 


4- "7 


Pittsburg 

Detroit 


5 


r^ViirafO 


9 

3 

6 
4 

5 


9 

5 
4 
2 
8 
3 


1 .4 


Philnrlplnhin 


Buffalo . . 


1.8 




San Francisco 




Milwaukee 


6.2 




Cincinnati 


2. 2 


Baltimore 











Doubtless the variation found in the time allotted to the va- 
rious subjects is due in some degree to a corresponding difference 
in emphasis upon the subject in question, i. e. a difference in the 
product expected. There is no doubt but that a single school 
system with a reputation for good work influences many others. 
Much must be allowed for tradition and something for a passing 
demand which leads now and again to additional emphasis on 
this or that subject. 

A scientific allotment of time and organization of the course 
of study will be possible only when we define more accurately 
the ends which we desire and perfect the scales or units of meas- 
urement which we apply in measuring results in education. We 
will concern ourselves with certain optima the resultants of time 
devoted to the given subject and the product secured. The 
optimum in a subject like arithmetic or handwriting will be 
thought of in terms of three variables, the amount and distribu- 
tion of time, the product in terms of accuracy or form, and the 
speed with which the given result is achieved. If we can deter- 
mine that a certain standard of form is desirable in penmanship 
and that the pupil must be able to produce these forms at a cer- 
tain speed, we can then experiment with the amount and distri- 



1 No data at hand. 



164 Educational Administration 

bution of time with a definite goal in view. When such experi- 
ments are undertaken, it will be necessary to allow for individual 
differences. Possibly our standards may be expressed in terms 
of the accomplishment of the median individual and in terms of 
the variability from this central tendency. 



§ 15- Size of School as a Conditioning Factor in Secondary 

Education ^ 

The most typical, in the sense of the most frequent, secondary 
school in the United States is a school taught by one teacher. The 
secondary schools in the country with only one teacher outnum- 
ber by a considerable figure all those with five or more teachers. 
Those with only one or two teachers outnumber by a considerable 
figure all the rest. Those with one, two, or three teachers are ten 
times as frequent as those with ten or more teachers and five 
times as frequent as those with from five up to ten teachers. 

Of course the fact that the one-teacher school is much the 
most frequent does not mean that a secondary school student 
will most frequently attend a one-teacher school. The typical 
secondary school education in the sense of the sort of secondary 
education most commonly given need not be that given in a one- 
teacher school. Still the frequency of the schools of small teach- 
ing force is so much greater that in spite of the large registration 
of city high schools there are more pupils in the two-teacher high 
schools than in any other one group, unless, perhaps, the three- 
teacher schools, and more in schools with three teachers or less 
than in schools of from five to thirteen teachers, and nearly if 
not quite as many as in schools of fifteen or more teachers. 

The printed discussions of secondary school problems seem 
to have in view to a large degree a school of six to twelve teachers 
with two or three hundred pupils. The report of the Committee 
of Ten strikes one as unconsciously based upon the acceptance 
of some such quantity as typical for secondary schools. It is 

^ This section is quoted with slight alterations from an article entitled "A Neg- 
lected Aspect of the American High School," by Edward L. Thorndike, which 
appeared in the Edticational Review in March, 1907 (Vol. XXXIII, No. 3). 

i6s 



1 66 Educational Administration 

nowhere typical in any valuable sense, and is about as little 
typical as could be expected in Massachusetts. Schools of one 
or two teachers only are six times as frequent and enroll more 
pupils. Schools of twenty teachers or more enroll as many pupils. 
Either the district high school, as we may call the one- or two- 
teacher school, or the unlimited possibility high school, as we may 
call one that commands the services of twenty or more teachers, 
is a more important educational agency in this country than the 
six- to twelve- teacher high school. 

The facts concerning the size of teaching staff and the size of 
student body, and consequently the opportunity for a varied 
program of studies, advanced instruction, periods of a half-hour's 
length, specialized equipment on the part of teachers and the like, 
are shown in Table 59 and Figure 22, which give the frequencies 
of different sizes of teaching staff for the country as a whole; and 
in Table 60 and Figure 23, which give roughly the frequencies 
of different sizes of student body. 

These facts show that the high school is, like the ^'college,'' 
an institution of enormous variability as regards its capacity for 
educational work and its administrative and educational arrange- 
ments. 

This variability has never been fully realized in the discussions 
of secondary school problems. The recommendations made are 
often utterly impossible of realization by the village high school 
and decidedly unwise for the unlimited possibility high school. 
The rule must in the nature of the case be that what is best for 
any one-fifth of high school effort is not the best for any other 
fifth. Because of historical reasons the village high schools and 
the schools of unlimited possibility have suffered most. 

The one- or two-teacher high school has been confined to text- 
books made for class instruction in periods of thirty minutes or 
more. It has been led to attempt to teach chiefly foreign lan- 
guages and mathematics, the subjects where close grading and 



Size of School as a Factor in Secondary Education 167 



2Z00 r-, 

2100- 

zooo- 



1800- 



i2i&oo- 

o 

o 



1400 



0) 

J2I200- 



1000- 



800 



600- 



12 3 4 5 6 7 8 etc. 
Nu! 



Z\ 



30 
iber of Teachers 

Fig. 22. Relative frequencies of public high schools of i, 2, 3, 4, etc. teachers (1904.) 



1 68 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 50 







Number of Public High Schools (1004) 






O ,/, 
















M 


IH 


















eg 
1^ 


North 

Atlantic 

States 


Us 


•52 S 


North 

Central 

States 


Western 
States 


District of 
Columbia 


Entire 
United States 




I 


322 


200 


24s 


1,320 


88 




2,175 


I 


2 


392 


138 


227 


968 


82 




1,807 


2 


3 


251 


69 


148 


662 


91 




1,221 


3 


4 


185 


41 


66 


306 


42 




640 


4 


5 


106 


19 


30 


190 


36 




380 


5 


6 


78 


4 


9 


98 


18 




207 


6 


7 


61 


7 


14 


80 


10 




172 


7 


8 


28 


5 


2 


44 


8 




87 


8 


9 


26 


5 


6 


31 


6 




74 


9 


lO 


14 


3 


2 


24 


5 




48 


10 


II 


12 




2 


25 


3 




42 


II 


12 


15 




4 


17 


2 




38 


12 


13 


9 


2 


3 


13 


3 




30 


13 


14 


17 




2 


12 


4 




35 


14 


15 


lO 




I 


6 


3 




20 




10 


II 






2 


2 


I 


18 


16 


^7 


6 




2 


4 


2 




14 


17 


i8 


II 




I 


6 


3 


I 


23 


18 


19 


6 






2 


2 


I 


II 


19 


20 


7 






S 






12 


20 


21 


5 






6 


2 




14 


21 


22 


5 






4 


I 




II 


22 


23 


6 






5 






II 


23 


24 


8 




I 


4 






17 


24 


25 


5 






4 




I 


10 


25 


26 






I 


I 






7 


26 


^2 


2 






4 






6 


27 


28 


2 






I 






5 


28 


29 


2 






I 






4 


29 


30 








3 


2 




5 


30 


31 








I 






I 


31 


32 


4 






I 




I 


6 


32 . 


33 












I 


I 


33 


34 


2 








I 




3 


34 


35 


I 






2 






3 


35 


36 


I 






2 






3 


36 


37 


3 






2 






5 


37 


38 








4 






4 


38 


39 
















39 


40 


I 












I 


40 




Also seventeen 






Also eight 


Also one 


Also one of 


Also twenty- 






schools of over 






schools of over 


each of 43 


45 teachers 


eight over 






40 teachers 






40 teachers 


and 51 
teachers 




40 teachers 






41- 50 5 






41-50 2 












51- 60 4 






51-60 3 












61- 70 2 






61-70 2 












71- 80 3 






71-80 












81- go I 






81-90 I 












91-100 


















101-109 2 

















Size of School as a Factor in Secondary Education 169 



recitation methods are most necessary. It has been stigmatized 
for failure to maintain a four-year course or the pretense of one. 
The first two results are almost certainly unfortunate and the 
third is probably so. Text-books somewhat after the pattern 
used by the best correspondence schools would be much more 
efiScient. By replacing four classes in Latin receiving only fifteen 

TABLE 60 

Showing the Approximate Proportions of the Public High School Enrollment of the United 
States in Schools of from i to iio Teachers (1904) 



In schools of 



Number of Students 

Teachers Enrolled 

I- 3 teachers are 36.6 per cent of the public high school students 



I- 10 
II- 20 
21- 30 
31- 40 
41- 50 
SI- 60 
61- 70 
71- 80 
81- 90 
91-100 

lOI-IIO 



minutes a day each by one class in English enrolling pupils of all 
four years and doing different work each year of a quadrennium, 
the teacher would have a class of size sufficient to arouse enthu- 
siasm and mutual interests in the students, taught for a full 
forty-minute period daily, and still have twenty minutes daily 
to apply to the strengthening of other courses. The same result 
would be reached by making a quadrennium course in science, 
say biology, physics, chemistry, and agriculture. 

To teach a four-year course poorly may for certain social rea- 
sons have advantages over teaching a two-year course twice as 
well, but in ultimate educational value it cannot be as good in 
the case of a one- or two-teacher high school. Pupils who are 
able to give the last two years to continued secondary education 
ought to be encouraged to go to a larger high school. It is not 
economical to try to fit the enormous variability of local educa- 
tional endeavor to a scale so coarse as ''elementary school," 



lyo 



Educational Administration 



30 




12 345 



I — I n 



^=n 



45 



50 



60 



70 



75 



JZL 



l~l 



n 



n 



80 90 100 105 

Fig. 23. The horizontal line is for the size of school (number of teachers): the 
heights give the approximate number of pupils enrolled, as measured by the 
number of thousands of teachers employed (1904). 



"elementary school and high school," and '^ elementary school, 
high school, and college." We need two-year high schools as 
truly as four-year high schools. And we lower, not raise, edu- 



Size of School as a Factor in Secondary Education 171 

cational standards by providing a four-year course for a high 
school with only one teacher to do its work. 

An easy, but perhaps the wrong, solution for the village high 
school problem will rise in every one's mind — consohdation. 
The difficulties of consolidation are here of course far greater 
than in elementary schools. And consolidation theoretically 
should result not only in replacing one- and two-teacher high 
schools by four- or six-teacher schools, but also in replacing no 
high school by one- and two- teacher schools, giving us the same 
problem again. Into the details of this problem I shall not enter, 
as this article is intended to show the significance of statistics 
rather than to contribute to theories of administration. I ven- 
ture, however, to correct one opinion which is demonstrably un- 
just to the village high schools, the opinion that they are the re- 
sult of relatively low educational ideals. 

The predominance of small over large high schools is by no 
means symptomatic of poor support of secondary education by 
a community. This fact is shown by Table 61, which gives the 
states ranked in order for the smallness of the proportion of 
secondary students enrolled in schools with only one, two or three 
teachers; and for the general support of secondary education as 
measured by the number of public high-school teachers per thou- 
sand of population. For example, Rhode Island, New Jersey and 
New York, though very free from the one- two- three-teacher 
high school, are near mediocrity in respect to degree of support, 
while Maine, Nebraska and South Dakota, though characterized 
by many small high schools, rank very high in degree of support 
of secondary education. Some of the states that are in the top 
fifth for the number of public high school teachers provided for 
one thousand of the population are distinctly village high school 
states. Nor do those states, such as California, Minnesota, and 
Wisconsin, which, though rural states, are exceptional in the low 
percentage of one- and two-teacher high schools, provide any bet- 



172 



Educational A dministration 



TABLE 61 

The States Ranked in Order by the Smallness of the Proportion of Second- 
ary Students Enrolled in Schools with One, Two or Three Teachers 
(Column Headed "Size of Schools") and by the Number of Public 
High School Teachers per Thousand of Population (Column Headed 
"Support of Schools"). Data for 1904 



Size of 
Schools 


Support of 
Schools 


I 


21 


2 


I 


3 


25 


4 


20 


5 


31 


6 

7 
8 

9 


3 

i7>^ 

36>^ 


10 


22 


II 
12 
13 


13K 


14 


II 


15 


34 


16 


8 


:i 


34 


19 

20 


27 
6>^ 


21 


42 


22 


31 


^s 


45 


24 


42 


25 


47 



Size of I Support of 
Schools i Schools 



Rhode Island . . 
Massachusetts . 
New Jersey. . . . 

New York 

Utah 

Colorado 

California 

Connecticut . . . 
New Mexico ^ . 
Illinois 

Minnesota 

Wisconsin 

Montana 

New Hampshire. 
Maryland 

Michigan 

Oklahoma 

Washington . . . 

Delaware 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Pennsylvania . . 

Virginia 

Louisiana 

No. Carolina . , . 



Missouri. . . 

Idaho 

Ohio 

Indiana. . . . 
W. Virginia 

Vermont. . . 
No. Dakota 
Kansas . . . . 
i\rkansas. . . 
Maine 

Texas 

So. Carolina 
Mississippi. 
Nebraska . . 
Georgia. . . . 

Oregon . . . . 
Wyoming . . 
Florida . . . . 
Tennessee. . 
Alabama. . . 

So. Dakota. 
Nevada. . . . 



26 
27 
28 
29 
30 



31 
32 
?>?> 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 

43 
44 
45 

46 

47 



26 

31 
10 

5 
40 

9 

23 
12 

45 
4 

29 

36K 

38K 

38K 

24 
28 

34 
42 

45 

13/^ 
17K 



ter for secondary education than their neighbors Washington, 
Michigan, Indiana, and South Dakota, which have high percent- 
ages. The large cities often, perhaps usually, do not provide for 
secondary education so well as do the towns. For instance, San 
Francisco, Chicago, Philadelpha, and New York do not provide 
anywhere nearly so many public high school teachers per thou- 

^ Including Arizona also, 



Size of School as a Factor in Secondary Education 173 

sand of p'^pulation as their respective states do. A two-teacher 
high school in a town of two thousand may seem to the modern 
educator a rather despicable educational institution, but it means 
a provision for secondary education far, far above the average of 
any state and still farther above the average of all save a very 
few cities. 

The high school of the large cities has suffered as truly. A 
school with thirty or more teachers might well aspire to approxi- 
mate the ideal of big institutions where a boy or girl from thirteen 
to nineteen could learn anything that it was well for him at that 
age to know. A rich elective system, the provision of technical 
and semi-professional education, the opportunity for work of the 
continuation-school type during two or more forenoons a week, 
and many other flexibilities of adaptation of the school to its pu- 
pils' natures and needs are here possible as they could never be in a 
ten- teacher school. The natural tendency of school boards would 
have been to favor such a university for the 'teens. But the 
innocent mistake of writers who, properly convinced that multi- 
plication of courses in a five- to ten-teacher school meant super- 
ficiality and waste, insisted that it always meant superficiality 
and waste, has estabHshed the fad of regarding a simple program 
of studies composed of the staple algebra, geometry, EngHsh, two 
or more foreign languages, and the like, as the dignified and first- 
class thing in a high school. Two hundred students Hving within 
a mile of one high school travel four miles to a technical high 
school, though of the fifty teachers in the first, five or six might 
well teach them what they need to learn. Five hundred of the 
pupils in the first school are deprived of the opportunity of study- 
ing to some little extent the technical arts and industries, though 
they ought to do so. 

It would be far more practicable for schools with twenty-five 
or more teachers to do satisfactorily two years' work in advance 
of the present four-year secondary course than it is for over half 



174 Educational Administration 

of the high schools to do satisfactorily the work of the last two 
years of the present course. The large high schools could do the 
work better than a third of the colleges legally giving degrees, 
the third having eight or less instructors. 

We may expect that as American education becomes more and 
more rationally organized, the small college will not pretend to be 
more than either a pleasant and cultured social resort for youth's 
leisure or a fitting school for the professional schools, higher 
technical schools and institutions for specialized study of the 
sciences of nature and of man. But we may also expect that the 
city high schools will assume this same function of fitting schools, 
not for college, but for these same professional schools, higher 
technical schools and universities — that the large high schools 
will become in fact what they are now in possibility. 

The twenty-five teacher high school misses some of the social 
advantages of the small school. Teachers do not know one an- 
other. Pupils have less chance of becoming humanized and more 
danger of becoming institutionalized. Democracy loses an ef- 
fective helper. Athletics become a question of finance rather than 
play. The boys mimic college fraternities and men's clubs in their 
social organizations. Perhaps such measures as the provision 
of a special teacher to act as social secretary may relieve these 
disadvantages. If they cannot be avoided, it is all the more 
necessary for the large high school to compensate by richer pro- 
vision for the more purely intellectual and practical needs of its 
students. If the big city high school does no more than give 
such a program of studies as the traditional Massachusetts 
high school, it probably does not do as well by its students as the 
smaller schools. . . . 

The institutions which we call by the same name, public high 
schools, cannot (and probably ought not if they could) be all 
made to fulfill similar aims or to be administered in similar 
fashion. There is no typical high school in any useful sense of the 



Size of School as a Factor in Secondary Education 175 

word. Probably no one of all the thousands of high schools is 
doing the best possible thing for education, but most of them 
would do worse than they now do if they all did do the best pos- 
sible thing for any one of them. There are faults to be corrected 
by the adoption of conventional practices, but there are also faults 
to be corrected by abandoning conventional practices. This is so 
widely true because the conventions have been established by a 
sort of school which represents but a very moderate fraction of 
secondary education. 



§i6. The Inefficiency of College Entrance Examinations^ 

The facts which I shall present concern the records in entrance 
examinations and the academic careers of all the students of 
Columbia College entering in 1901, 1902, and 1903, and espe- 
cially the relation between their success in the entrance examina- 
tions and their success in college. From these facts it will be 
proved that even so carefully managed examinations as these 
are an extremely imperfect means of estimating an individual's 
fitness for college. The suggestions to be made concern a simple 
and practicable development of the work of the College Entrance 
Examination Board which would remedy the defects of examina- 
tion systems and still not introduce the doubtful features of the 
usual certificate systems. 

In 1 90 1, 1902, and 1903 there entered Columbia College 253 
students who have complete, or nearly complete, records of 
standings in entrance examinations and who stayed in college 
through the freshman year. I have complete records of the 
standing through senior year of 56 of these and complete records 
through junior year of 130. Detailed reference will be made 
here only to the 130 students whose college history can be in- 
vestigated for three years or more, though the facts concerning 
the remaining 123 have been studied in detail and give abundant 
corroborative evidence. 

The important facts concerning the relationship of success in 
entrance examinations to success in college work are given in 
Tables 62, 63, 64 and 65. They prove that we cannot estimate 
the latter from the former with enough accuracy to make the 

1 This section reprints portions of an article entitled "The Future of the 
College Entrance Examination Board" by Edward L. Thorndike, from the 
Educational Review, May, 1906 (Vol. XXXI, No. 5). 

176 



The Inefficiency of College Entrance Examinations 177 

entrance examinations worth talcing or to prevent gross and 
intolerable injustice being done to many individuals. 

For instance, 6 students out of the 130 received the same 
average entrance mark-6i. In their college work o£ junior year, 
I averaged a trifle above D; i half-way from D to C; i a httle 
above C, and 2 received A in four subjects out of five, and B m 
the other. In freshman and sophomore year, the range was nearly 

as great. 

Eleven students of the 130 received in the entrance examina- 
tions marks averaging 70 in each case. In their college work of 
junior year, they averaged all the way from D to A. 

Of the students who were in the lower half of the group m the 
entrance examinations, nearly 40 per cent are found in the upper 
half in the last three years of college. 

Of the dozen students who ranked highest in entrance, some 
were in the lowest fifth of the class by jum'or year. 

If, knowing that 50 individuals ranked in the order Jones, 
Smith Brown, etc., in their entrance marks, one were to wager 
that in the college work of, say, junior year, they would rank 
Jones, Smith, Brown, etc., as before, he would lose his bet m 47 
cases out of the 50. 

The record of eleven or more entrance examinations gives a 
less accurate prophecy of what a student will do in the latter half 
of his college course than does the college record of his brother! 
The correlation between brothers in intellectual ability is approxi- 
mately .40, but that between standing in entrance examinations 
and standing in college of the same person is only .47 ^or jumor 
year and .2 5 for senior year. Even in the case of sophomore year, 
the correlation is only .60. . 

The entrance examinations also bear internal evidence of their 
inadequacy as measures of fitness for college. If a student who 
fails in his first trial of an examination gets a vastly different 

mark a few months or even a year later, it is clear that the 



1 78 Educational Administration 

examination in so far does not test capacity so much as the 
carefulness of the coaching or the dihgence of the candidate's 
cram. As a matter of fact, in 150 cases of repeated examinations, 
the two marks from the same student show a median difference 
of over 22 (the scale of marking being the common one of 100 down 
to o). The differences between the earlier and later marks of 
one student are greater than the difference between the marks 
of different students chosen at random. 

Moreover, the marks on which a student is admitted are not 
so good a test of his fitness to do the work of the college as the 
marks of his first trials. If the students are ranked by their first 
trials of the examinations, the order corresponds much more 
closely to their order of achievement in college than when they 
are ranked by their official entrance marks. 

Where there are several examinations in one general subject, 
such as Latin, the different marks of the same individual in the 
one subject vary in such eccentric ways that an individual who 
is marked the lowest of twenty in one is at times marked the 
highest of twenty in the other. The average range of difference 
of an individual's separate marks in Latin in the entering class 
of 1902 was over 26! 

The general inadequacy of the entrance examinations from 
which the colleges suffer is not so important as their enormous 
individual inaccuracies, from which individual students suffer. 

The entrance marks often utterly misrepresent the fitness of a 
student for college work. For instance, there were 10 men out 
of the 130 who in their junior year got A (the highest mark given) 
in at least five studies. Their average marks at entrance were in 
some cases in the lowest tenth of the 130, barely above the pass- 
ing mark. Had the passing mark been set the least bit higher, 
one of the very best students of the three college classes would 
have been debarred from entrance. There is every reason to 
believe that of those students who did yet worse in the entrance 



The Inefficiency of College Entrance Examinations 179 

examinations and so were shut out, a fairly large percentage 
would have done better in college than a third of those who were 
admitted. Sooner or later there will be some one so barred out 
who would, if admitted, have been the best man in his class. It 
is a moral atrocity to decide the fitness of an individual for col- 
lege by a system which, when required to work to a moderate 
degree of accuracy, is wrong 47 times out of 50 1 

From many facts such as these, which the scientific reader can 
find in tables 62-64, it is certain that the traditional entrance 
examinations, even when as fully safeguarded as in the case of 
those given by the College Entrance Examination Board, do 
not prevent incompetents from getting into college; do not pre- 
vent students of excellent promise from being discouraged, im- 
properly conditioned or barred out altogether; do not measure 
fitness for college well enough to earn the respect of students or 
teachers; and do intolerable injustice to individuals. There h 
surely room for improvement. 

It is unprofitable to seek a remedy in any modification of the 
examination along conventional lines. Doubtless, more elabo- 
rate examinations, the employment of more readers and the like 
might alleviate the chief evil somewhat, but evolution in this di- 
rection is along the line of greatest resistance. It is conceivable 
that some of the colleges that maintain independent examinations 
for entrance may secure better results, though I should expect 
them to be worse. I wished to study the records of 200 Harvard 
students in connection with the 253 Columbia records, but did 
not succeed in obtaining President Eliot's permission to examine 
the records. 

The usual certificating systems are not entirely suitable to 
the purposes of Eastern colleges. The geographical distribution 
of the secondary schools which send students to, say, Amherst 
or Princeton makes the direct examinations of schools exceedingly 
burdensome; the possibility that colleges might compete for the 



i8o Educational Administration 

support of important secondary schools is distasteful; the at- 
tempt to introduce certification generally would probably result 
in a return to chaotic individualism. 

Moreover, there is one fundamental weakness in both systems 
as practiced; in intent and in execution effort is directed solely 
toward keeping unfit students out rather than toward getting 
desirable students in. Both systems are connected partly as 
cause and partly as effect, with a shortsighted neglect of the fact 
that, for the good of the social organism (and, for that matter, 
of the college, too), it is more important to give advanced educa- 
tion to one boy who most needs it, can profit most by it, and use 
it in the world's service than to prevent from entering upon it 
a hundred boys who are not able to measure up to its demands. 
Letting incompetents into college is, perhaps, poor economy, 
although in a well regulated college they do not stay long, or do 
more harm than they get good. But to make a college education 
an impossibility for the really capable boy, in whose case the 
education is an investment by society that will yield from a 
hundred to ten thousand per cent, is criminal. 

My suggestion for the future development of the College 
Entrance Examination Board aims at securing a system that 
is, first of all, a positive force selecting for continued education 
those who deserve it; a system that will, in the second place, 
codperate with secondary schools in their endeavors to improve 
the conditions and quality of secondary school work; a system 
also that will, though rigorous, still be just; a system that will be 
rational and measure directly fitness for college, not the mere 
opinion of inspectors or the length and assiduity of study, or the 
ingenious art of parading knowledge in a form to beguile exam- 
iners; finally, a system that will be a natural development of 
existing arrangements and will make full use of the admirable 
organization furnished by the Middle States board. 

It is, in brief, that the colleges which now intrust to the board 



The Inefficiency of College Entrance Examinations i8i 

the function of examining students, intrust to it also the function 
of crediting schools on the basis in each case of an examination 
of the actual success in college of the candidates indorsed by that 
school. 

Suppose, for instance, that to the board was given authority 
to accredit any school whose graduates already in college had, 
in nine cases out of ten, done satisfactory work in their studies 
and been desirable members of the college community. Such 
an accredited school would be privileged to certify a student as 
"fit for college " and to certify further to what extent he had done 
the particular kinds of preparatory work required for the various 
units of the board's schedule. The new work of the board 
would be to obtain annually, or less often, records from the dif- 
ferent colleges of their students classified as Satisfactory or Un- 
satisfactory. These records the board would sort out in accord- 
ance with its lists of secondary schools and their indorsed 
graduates. Some hours' computation of percentages would com- 
plete the work. The work of college admission committees would 
be to treat the certificates from accredited schools precisely as 
they now treat the certificates of the College Entrance Examina- 
tion Board. The work of the accredited school would be to secure 
and fill out the general certificates of fitness for college and the 
special certificate of having taken courses qualified to fulfill such 
and such particular admission specifications. Students not cer- 
tificated by their schools and students from schools not accredited 
by the board would be examined as now. 

We would have, that is, neither of the conventional admission 
systems, but a rigorous, continuous, and absolutely impartial 
examination of each school on the basis of its actual work in fur- 
nishing candidates who demonstrated their fitness for college by 
their work in college. 

Such a system would encourage boys and girls who were in 
the truest sense fit for college to go there, for the fundamental 



1 82 Educational Administration 

certificate would be the outcome, not of a complex computation 
of what particular species of disciphnes the pupil had undergone 
but of the judgment of the teachers who knew him best that he 
was really fit for college. The award of this general certificate 
would encourage many students of first-rate capacity and promise 
who lacked some of the particular preparation demanded by a col- 
lege to proceed to secure it. A college education w^ould become 
less the consequence of early parental decision and more the con- 
sequence of demonstrated capacity. The award of the general 
certificate would also encourage the colleges to admit on proba- 
tion a student of excellent promise who, by some accident of 
fortune, had not taken the college preparatory course in high 
school; for they could then do so without elaborate special legis- 
lation and without incurring the reproach of lowering standards. 
The standard of capacity would, in such cases, be as high as ever 
and as high as anywhere. 

Such a system would improve the work of the secondary 
schools by setting a higher standard of attainment and at the 
same time abandoning prescriptive interference. The main duty 
of the high schools is to train boys and girls to be capable and 
intelhgent men and women. They and the public which supports 
them are willing to accept also the responsibility of fitting for 
college the small minority of their students who will go on to an 
academic degree; but they ought not to be asked to fit students 
primarily for an arbitrary set of examinations. With such a 
task, they cannot be expected to resist the temptation to give 
up a large part of the last two years to specific coaching for 
the process of examination taking. The proportion of college 
students who go on to professional courses is far greater than the 
proportion of high school students who go on to a college course, 
yet the colleges would think it an insane arrangement if they had 
to fit students for elaborate and arbitrary examinations in phys- 
iology, chemistry, bacteriology, and the Kke, or in the psychol- 



The Inefficiency of College Entrance Examinations 183 

ogy of rcl'gion, ecclesiastical history, church law, and Hebrew. 
The examination disease can be eliminated, and with an actual 
raising of standards, if a school's fitness to prepare for college 
is measured by the actual fitness of the students it prepares. 

Such a method of accrediting is obviously just to schools. 
Now that a perfectly trustworthy body exists to receive reports 
from all colleges, no school can complain if it is denied credit 
until the records of its graduates improve. It is also just to 
individuals, so far as any system which the colleges would be 
willing to operate can be. Occasionally an able candidate who 
happens to have gone to an inefficient school or to have been 
misjudged by his teachers, will have to run the risk of proving 
his ability by the unfair test of arbitrary examinations, but at 
present every able candidate has to run this risk. Occasionally, 
an able candidate will be held back a year longer than he ought 
by over cautious teachers, but a few years will demonstrate to 
those high school teachers who do not already know it that success 
in college is dependent on capacity ten times as much as upon 
mere amount of high school training, and they will soon abandon 
the false notion that they can maintain the credit of their school 
by holding back pupils. They will never abandon it under the 
present examination system; for under such a condition it is true; 
quantity of drill is a means of securing high standings in arbitrary 
examinations. The present system is a paradise for stupid boys 
— with clever tutors. A sagacious tutor can get a hundred boys 
into college, not one of whom he would be willing to certify to as 
fit to succeed there. 

Such a system is rational because it measures the ability of 
schools to fit for college, not their abihty to forearm students 
against the twin cataclysms of preliminary and final examina- 
tions. It puts the premium on capacity and right habits of in- 
tellectual work, rather than on the mass of information held in 
solution at a given week. It avoids the dangers, possible under 



' 184 Educational Administration 

the ordinary certificating systems, of misjudgment of schools by 
inadequate or eccentric inspection. It measures directly and ex- 
actly the fact we wish to measure. . . . 

Finally, such a system would be established through a natural 
modification of the function of an already existing organ through 
an easy extension of the powers of the present board. No new ma- 
chinery and only the simplest legislation is required. The only 
important change would be to add to the present duties and 
powers of the board the duty of rating schools by the success in 
college of the students they had vouched for and the power to 
accept from schools of a given rating a certificate that John Doe 
''is fit for college," and a certificate that John Doe "has done 
work equivalent to that recommended by the Middle States 
board for English i, English 2, History i," etc., etc. The col- 
leges which approve the system would vote simply to accept the 
board's examinations of schools as they now accept its examina- 
tions of individual students. The work of the board and of 
college admission committees would be lightened. 

Of the many administrative advantages of the plan, and of the 
possibility of unity of action amongst colleges throughout the 
country on the basis of a scheme so safe and yet so plastic, I do 
not care to speak, at least at this time. The system proposed is 
rational, just and practical. It positively encourages the right 
students to go to college instead of making laborious, but futile 
efforts to keep a few incompetents out. On these facts alone I 
rest my case. 

Tables 62, 63, 64, and 65 show for each individual the relation 
between entrance standing and college standing. Horizontal 
position denotes the rank in entrance (the median of the highest 
eleven marks obtained). Vertical position denotes the rank in 
college studies (the average of the five highest marks obtained) — 
in Senior year in Table 62, in Junior year in Table 63, etc. Each 



The Inefficiency of College Entrance Examinations 185 

figure entered in the table means so many students. Thus in 
Table 62 the i at the upper left-hand corner means that one stu- 
dent scoring 60 in entrance scored 4 in the college work of Senior 
year. The other i in the same column means that one student 
scoring 60 in entrance scored 2 1 in college work. The i in the next 
vertical column means that one student scoring 61 in entrance 
scored 24 in college work. The vertical column under 70 would 
read: Of 10 students, each ranking 70 in entrance examinations, 
one ranked 15 in the college work of Senior year, one 16, four 18, 
one 19, one 21, one 22, and one 27. 

The values 60, 61, 62, etc., up to 95 of the horizontal scale, are 
directly obtained from the entrance marks, which are given on 
the ordinary scale of from 100 down. The values 4, 5, 6, up to 
30 of the vertical scale, are obtained from the college records of 
A B C D and F by taking A = 6, B = 4, C = 3, D = i andF = o.i 
Thus 30 = five As, 28 = four As and one B, 27 = four As and one 
C, 26 = three As and two Bs, 25 = three As, one B and one C, 
or four As and one D, etc., etc. 

^A = io, B = 7, C = 5, D = 2, and F = o would perhaps have been juster. 



Relation 

60 

4 

5 

G 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

I? 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

ZO 

l\ 

11 

21 

l\ 

?5 

?6 

11 

28 

29 

30 



Table 62 
OF Standing in Entrance Examinations to Standing in College — Senior Year 

65 70 75 80 85 90 95 



Table 63 



Relation of 
60 


Standing 
65 


in 


Entrance Examinations to 
70 75 80 


Standing 

85 


IN College 

30 


— 


Junior 


Year 

95 


G 


; 










































































7 
























J 


I 


















































8 












































































9 






























/ 


/ 












































10 






1 












1 


























































11 
















2 










2 










1 








































12 












































































13 












/ 




I 




/ 










































/ 














14 






















J 




1 






/ 












































15 


/ 






























/ 










/ 


































16 






I 




/ 


/ 




1 


1 




2 




1 




/ 








1 


1 


/ 


































17 






















5 




/ 






/ 










3 




/ 






























18 








I 


/ 










/ 






















1 




/ 








/ 






















19 


/ 




















4 




















3 














/ 


/ 


















20 












f 




1 






3 


1 








/ 






I 




2 










/ 










/ 














21 


















1 




/ 










/ 








1 


2 




















/ 














22 






1 


/ 






















/ 


J 






1 


1 


I 




2 












/ 


















23 












































































24 














/ 








3 






/ 










1 




2 




1 






/ 










/ 














25 












































1 








/ 














/ 










26 






















1 












1 




























/ 














27 












































































28 




/ 




























3 










3 










2 




/ 




/ 
















29 












































































30 






1 
















! 




/ 
















1 




I 


7 










/ 




2_ 




i. 








/ 



186 



Table 64 
Relation of Standing in Entrance Examinations to Standing in College— Sophomore Year 
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 



I 




— 


— 


— 


n 






71 




— 


71 






— 


— 


— 












































?. 












































































3 












































































4 




































1 








































F 
















/ 






/ 






















































6 












































































7 


















2 
























1 


































8 


/ 


















/ 






/ 




















1 






























9 










/ 






















?. 










2 


































10 




/ 
















/ 


?. 








/ 














































II 












/ 














? 


















































1? 






















1 




1 












1 






































13 












/ 










r 




I 






I 






1 




1 




















I 














14 


/ 










/ 




/ 






J 






















































15 










/ 






/ 


1 




5 






/ 




1 












































16 






/ 










/ 






?. 






/ 


















1 








1 








1 














17 












/ 










? 












I 
































I 










18 


/ 




/ 
















5 




1 




/ 


3 








/ 


4 




1 






1 
























19 






















1 


/ 








1 










2 




1 










I 


1 


















20 
















/ 










d 




/ 










2 


4 


































21 














/ 




1 




?. 
























1 






























ZZ 






















I 








/ 


I 








1 


2 


1 




1 








I 




















?l 






; 


























2 












































24 






















?. 










2 






I 




^ 










1 




1 




















?h 






































I 








1 






























?6 






































1 




5 


1 








4 










2 














27 








/ 




































































28 




/ 


























/ 




I 


















I 






1 


1 


I 




I 










?9 












































































30 


























L 
































I 




2 










1 


I 



Table 65 
Relation of Standing in Entrance Examinations to Standing in College— Freshman Year 
60 65 70 75 81 85 90 95 

3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
II 
12 
13 

15 117 

16 

17 

18 I I I/I I I I I I |/| I I I |/ 

19 L AA2_ 

20 L L^L 

l\ Mill I/I I I 1/1 1/ 

Zl 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 



187 



§ 17- The Studies Actually Taken eor the A. B. Degree 

In view of the frequent discussions and proposals with respect 
to the course of study for the bachelor's degree in American 
colleges, it seems desirable to present the facts concerning the 
actual courses taken by representative students. Admiration 
of a set of printed requirements is misguided if in fact they are 
not followed; and criticism of follies which a given scheme is 
supposed to encourage is wasted if in fact it does not produce 
them. 

1 therefore give in the tables that follow (Tables 66-75) the ac- 
tual composition of the work done for the A. B. degree by 391 
men students graduating in 1909 ^ — 21 at Columbia, 36 at Bow- 
doin, 42 at Cornell, 50 at Harvard, 49 at Princeton, 20 at Stan- 
ford, 38 at Wesleyan, 40 at Williams, and 95 at Yale; also for 
22 women at Wellesley. These individuals were all chosen at 
random, being the first in alphabetical order. 

The tables give for each student separately the thousandths 
of his total course ^ devoted to: 

1. Latin, Greek and Semitic 

2. German, French, Spanish and Italian 

3. English 

4. Philosophy, Psychology, Logic and Ethics 

* For the original data from Columbia, Cornell, Princeton and Stanford, I am 
indebted to Mr. F. P, Keppel, Dean of Columbia College. For those from Yale, 
I am indebted to Dr. C. H. Judd, Director of the School of Education of the 
University of Chicago. The other data I owe to the courtesy of the administra- 
tive officers of the several institutions. 

2 Approximately. The number of points made in each subject was decided, not 
by their sum in every case, but by the total degree requirement or the average of 
their sums for all the students reported from the college in question. This is in the 
end fairer, but as a result the sum of the numbers in a row may not total to exactly 
one thousand. 

188 



The Studies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 189 

5. History, Economics, Government and Sociology 

6. Physics and Chemistry 

7. Biological Sciences 

8. Other Natural Sciences 

9. Mathematics 

10. Music and Art. 

In these tables each horizontal line represents the work for the 
bachelor's degree of one individual. The career he expects to 
follow is stated where it is known. Each entry represents the 
number of thousandths of the "hours" or "points" required in all 
for the degree which the individual at the left of the entry gave 
to the subject at the top of the column in which the entry is. 

Thus the first Hne of the Bowdoin table (Table 66, on page 190) 
reads: Individual No. i, intending to be a lawyer, earned 72 
thousandths of his points in ancient languages, 54 in modern 
foreign language, 263 in English, and so on. 

I am convinced that a careful study of these individual cur- 
ricula is the best, and perhaps an indispensable, introduction to 
any scientific study of the college course. It will be well to ex- 
amine them one by one with specific questions in mind, such as: 
Which are apparently bad combinations? How do the combina- 
tions at Harvard, under a system of free election, but within the 
non-professional studies, differ from those in the other colleges 
save Stanford? How do the Stanford combinations, under a 
system where the student chooses a major subject, and the head 
of that department in large measure chooses the courses for the 
student, differ from those at Harvard on the one hand and at the 
other colleges on the other hand? How far do students avail 
themselves of professional options, when such are offered, as at 
Columbia and Stanford and, to some degree, at Cornell? How 
much specialization was there under the regulations in force in 
these colleges in 1905-9? How much "scattering" was there? 



I go 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 66 

BOWDOIN 







d 


c 


.a 


k 






'^ 


'c^ 












< 


1 


.J2 

'mi 
c 
W 


PL, 






pq 





1 








I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 




I 


law 


72 


'i 


263 


54 


354 


81 


81 


27 








2 


" 


27 


318 


290 


54 


163 




81 


27 


72 






3 


" 


72 


245 


263 


54 


190 


54 






72 


ed. 


27 


4 


" 


72 


81 


263 


54 


2X8 


54 


27 


36 


127 


ed. 


27 


5 


" 




163 


290 


54 


163 


54 




36 


127 


ed. 


54 


6 


teaching 


100 


381 


236 




81 




27 


27 








7 


" 




381 


290 




109 


109 






72 






8 


" 




300 


154 




54 


218 


54 


27 


54 


dr. 


54 


9 


" 




163 


290 


54 


218 


54 


136 




72 


ed. 


27 


lO 


medicine 


127 


163 


290 




54 


54 






72 


med. 


250 


II 






272 


127 


27 


109 


81 


81 




72 


med. 


250 


12 






163 


181 




136 


109 


81 




72 


med. 


250 


13 






163 


181 


54 




381 




27 


181 


dr. 


54 


14 


'' 


27 


435 


263 


54 


54 


54 






72 


ed. 


54 


15 




127 


109 


318 


163 


136 


54 


81 


27 








i6 


" 


72 


327 


209 


27 


163 


109 


27 




72 






17 


" 


72 


272 


263 


54 


54 


218 






72 






i8 


" 


127 


327 


236 


54 


190 


|4 






18 






19 


" 




272 


209 


54 


81 


163 


81 




72 






20 




172 


272 


290 


54 


127 


54 




27 








21 


" 


72 


272 


290 


54 


272 














22 


" 


36 


272 


209 


54 


300 




27 




36 


ed. 


54 


23 






163 


318 


54 


218 


54 


27 


27 


72 


ed. 


27 


24 


chemist 


72 


272 


181 


27 




272 






127 


dr. 


54 


25 




72 




318 


54 


136 


300 


27 


27 




ed. 


54 


26 


engineering 


109 


163 


181 


27 


54 


272 




63 


154 


dr. 


81 


27 


electrician 


72 


272 


236 


27 


136 


136 


54 


54 




ed. 


27 


28 


forestry 


127 


218 


290 


27 


27 


81 


54 


27 


72 


ed. 


54 


29 

30 


manufacturing 


72 


381 

272 


181 

209 


54 
54 


190 
245 


At 






72 
72 


ed. 


54 


31 


" 


72 


381 


209 


54 


109 


109 






72 






32 


express 


36 


218 


209 


27 


381 


81 


27 


27 


36 






33 


banker 


318 


327 


127 






109 




45 


127 






34 


business 


27 


190 


290 


54 


24s 


54 


27 




72 


ed. 


54 


35 


undertaker 


145 


272 


181 


54 


54 


190 


54 










36 


journalist 


27 


272 


290 


54 


272 








72 







Also 9 for each student in hygiene, 
dr. = Drawing; ed. = Education; med. 



Medicine. 



The Studies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 191 



TABLE 67 
Columbia 





d 

s 

c 




■^ 
^ 


6 

IS 


.2 


J3 


:3 


in 
1 


J5 




1 

■a 






< 


W 


CL, 


ffi 


Ph 


s 





S 


< 


W 






I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 




I 


80 


100 


I7S 


300 


175 


133 


so 




50 


33 






2 


100 


2SO 


117 


267 


100 




100 












3 


so 


225 


87 


SO 


50 


33, 


SO 




SO 






500 engineering 


4 


217 


125 


150 


SO 


217 


133 


3.3. 




2S 


33 






5 


133 


367 


83 


7S 


so 


83 


33 




so 




42 


250 law 


6 


50 


50 


83 


SO 


SO 


67 


67 




83 


33 


42 


500 architecture 


7 


100 




22s 


100 


100 


67 


67 




SO 


33 




250 law 


8 


383 


67 


83 


100 


7S 


67 


67 




so 




50 




9 


83 


100 


233 


ISO 


283 


67 


100 












10 


117 


ISO 


117 


SO 


ISO 


117 




so 


SO 






250 law 


11 


SO 


200 


183 


7S 


200 


64 




SO 


17 






250 Jaw 


12 


433 


100 


117 


ISO 




67 






33, 




17 




13 


50 


100 


83 


100 


SO 


SO 


100 




33 






500 medicine 


14 


150 


217 


300 


158 


133 


67 






SO 








15 


SO 


233 


233 


100 


100 


67 




50 


33 


so 




100 law 


16 


208 


158 


100 


7S 


100 


100 






SO 


17 




250 law 


17 


100 


233 


ISO 


SO 


ISO 


67 


67 




33 






250 law 


18 


50 


2S 


83 


100 


100 


33 


67 




267 




3SO 




19 


50 


I7S 


167 


183 


83 


33 


33 


33 


50 






250 law 


20 


SO 


167 


83 


SO 


SO 


117 






83 






500 engineering 


21 


50 


208 


142 


83 


142 


50 


67 


33. 






60 


250 law 


22 




100 


83 


100 


SO 


67 


167 




SO 






500 medicine 



Also 33 for each student in gymnasium. 



N 



IQ2 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 68 
Cornell 







a 
6 

G 

< 

1 


H-l 


CO 

1 

w 

3 


i 

'2. 
4 


c 

1 
-0 


6 

CD 


i 


5 

7 



8 


1 
9 


.s 

2 
Q 

10 






2 


5 


6 




I 


law 


no 


141 


265 


94 




203 


47 






47 


83 




2 


" 


31 




180 


102 




344 






47 


47 




234 law 


3 


" 


no 


305 




141 




375 


47 












4 






70 


94 


164 




367 


94 






78 




31 law 


5 


" 


94 


94 


180 


141 




453 








47 


31 




6 


" 




180 


172 


47 




461 






78 








7 


" 


63 


188 


23 


273 




63 


31 




63 


47 




234 law 


8 


" 




125 


188 


63 




273 








78 




258 law 


9 


" 




47 


211 


70 




578 




31 










lO 


law or teaching 


203 


234 


47 


47 


117 


30s 














u 


teaching 




183 


47 


94 


94 


47 


86 




47 


391 


47 




12 






188 










477 






350 


31 




13 


" 


70 


438 


70 


133 


180 


16 








78 






14 


" 


55 


281 


78 


16 


125 


508 














IS 


" 


133 


78 


485 


133 


31 


102 






47 






31 a 


i6 




359 


242 


149 


94 




211 


47 












^l 


" 


203 


125 


47 


31 




516 






47 


47 


31 




i8 


" 




94 


117 






70 


203 


375 


94 


125 






19 


(d) 




313 


94 


39 


no 






70 








164 a 125 


20 


teaching or ? 


219 


164 


31 


23 


133 


39 








321 






21 


p 


273 


172 


94 


47 


'141 


172 


78 






47 






22 


? 




94 


211 


no 




391 


47 




39 


78 






23 


? 


156 


227 


250 


47 




23 


47 


47 


16 


63 




16 a 


24 


? 




47 








8 


695 




47 


94 




23 b 


^5 


? 


211 


547 


188 




31 
















26 


? 


no 


188 


141 


47 




391 


31 




78 


31 


23 




^z 


medicine 




188 


47 


86 






196 


219 






16 


297 medicine 


28 




16 


125 


117 


23 




78 


234 


149 


23 


47 




297 


29 


" 


16 


149 


47 






47 


258 


133 


47 


39 


31 


297 


30 




63 


no 


141 


125 




117 


149 


125 










31 


" 


47 


117 


94 


47 






180 


227 




78 




297 


32 

33 

34 
35 

36 


chemist 




47 
47 
70 

141 








8 

47 


758 
727 
775 
766 

758 




63 
70 
94 
63 

94 


7^ 
78 

125 




23 b 
23 b 
23 b 
23 b 

23 b 


37 


dyer 




149 


70 


23 




125 


383 




23 




78 


23 c 


38 
39 


manufacturing 




78 
70 


141 

258 


23 
23 




125 
531 


26s 
16 




78 
no 






23 b 188 engnieering 


40 




10 


47 


336 


47 




336 


47 


63 


141 








41 


painter 




94 


329 


117 




94 


78 


55 


16 






31 a 47 b 


42 


business 


63 


336 


47 


23 


55 


117 


188 








47 





a = Architecture. b = Drawing. c = Unknown; records as M. A. (d) ^ Supervisor of Drawing. 



The Studies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 193 



TABLE 69 
Harvard 





c 
c 

<; 




1 
to 

c 
W 


',5 

PL, 




U 

PLH 







1^ 


< 








I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 




I 




235 


118 


29 




471 


29 




59 








a 




176 


88 




59 


412 




88 


118 








3 


118 


59 


353 


382 


59 
















4 




676 


147 




235 
















S 


118 


118 


59 


59 


n8 


118 






294 


59 






6 




176 


265 


147 


471 


59 








59 






7 




118 


176 


147 


206 


118 




29 




294 


118 a. 29 en. 




8 


294 


118 


118 


29 


353 


59 




29 


88 


59 






9 




23s 


147 




617 




29 








59 ed. 




10 




176 


176 




235 


118 




176 




59 


88 m. 88 en. 




11 
12 




88 
59 


382 
88 


88 


176 
59 


147 
235 








59 


676 en. 




13 




176 


147 




176 








59 


176 


29 m. 118 a. 59 m. 


14 


118 


59 


147 


88 


529 
















15 


29 


n8 


206 


118 


294 


59 


59 


29 




118 






j6 


118 


176 


176 


n8 


441 
















17 




59 


59 


29 


186 


59 


59 




118 








i8 


176 


176 


118 


59 


412 










118 






19 

20 




59 


29 
118 




176 
147 


59 
59 


59 


88 
559 


118 




412 en. 
29 m. 




21 
22 
23 

24 
25 


118 


176 
118 

176 
235 


353 
382 
26s 
29 
118 


206 
235 
176 
118 
235 


88 
235 

598 
26s 


59 
59 
59 








59 


235 ed. 




26 




59 


118 


176 


235 


59 






29 


176 


29 en. 




""l 


59 


265 


176 


294 


294 


59 














28 


147 


118 


176 


118 


294 












88 en. 




29 
30 


235 


176 
598 


59 

147 




59 

471 


176 


59 




176 








31 




382 


176 


88 


265 










59 






32 


29 


147 


176 


59 


176 


59 


118 


29 




118 


29 m. 118 en. 




33 
34 


176 


471 
176 


265 
147 


176 


59 
559 


59 














35 


59 


118 


324 


147 


294 


99 






29 


88 






36 


235 


471 


353 


88 






59 












H 


59 


59 


147 


118 


441 


59 


59 




99 


59 






38 
39 


59 


324 
235 


147 
382 


59 


471 
324 










118 






40 


118 


147 


265 


88 


324 




59 








59 ar. 




41 




147 


147 


29 


353 


59 








235 


59 a. 




42 
43 


59 


412 
118 


59 
59 


59 
176 


324 
6i8 


59 






59 

205 








44 
45 

46 

s 

49 


294 


265 

235 

235 

59 

118 


118 
206 

118 
676 

59 


88 

235 

147 

59 


118 
382 

471 
118 
676 
647 


147 
59 


59 


29 

29 

58 


59 


59 
118 


147 en. 




50 




176 


176 


88 


353 




59 




29 


176 


29 m. 29 en. 





Notes. — a. = Architecture and landscape architecture; ar. = Archaeology; ed. = Education; 
en. = Engineering; m. = Mining. 



194 



Educational A dm inistration 



TABLE 70 
Princeton 





J 


i 


.23 


i 


6 


a 


t 


'D 


M 


S 
^ 






1 


1 




i 


.a 


Oh 




1 





< 






I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 




I 


177 


177 


129 


48 


31S 


48 




24 


64 






2 


298 


32 


IS3 


73 


31S 


48 






64 






3 


323 


32 


299 


48 


145 


48 






64 






4 


177 


177 


153 


48 


315 


48 






64 






5 


177 


177 


81 


48 


339 


48 






64 






6 


202 


129 


81 


48 


315 


73 




24 


113 






7 


177 


129 


250 


48 


218 


48 






64 


48 




8 


177 


129 


153 


48 


363 


48 






64 






9 


226 


81 


56 


121 


387 


48 






64 









202 


105 


153 


48 


303 


48 




24 


64 


24 




I 


177 


129 


129 


48 


339 


48 




24 


64 




24 a 


2 


177 


81 


153 


97 


315 


48 






113 






3 


177 


129 


56 


48 




31S 




24 


113 


, 


169 b 


4 


177 


177 


153 


48 


31S 


48 






^4 






5 


177 


129 


177 


291 


97 


48 






64 






6 


177 


81 


177 


48 


315 


48 




24 


64 




48 a 


7 


202 


129 


loS 


97 


363 


^l 






64 






8 


177 


129 


323 


48 


14s 


48 






113 






9 


177 


81 


IS3 


73 


339 


48 




24 


64 




24 c 


so 


177 


81 


153 


97 


339 


48 




24 


64 






Ji 


226 


430 


56 


48 


48 


48 




24 


64 




48 d 


S2 


202 


105 


81 


48 


339 


48 




24 


113 






S3 


274 


los 


347 


97 


48 


48 






64 






H 


177 


129 


299 


48 


145 


48 


24 


48 


64 






J5 


177 


145 


129 


48 


315 


97 




73 


64 


24 


24 c 


!6 


177 


105 


105 


48 


315 


48 






64 






J7 


177 


81 


177 


48 


121 


121 


194 




64 






28 


177 


32 


los 


48 


315 


97 




97 


64 




4^^. 


29 


177 


32 


105 


48 


315 


97 




97 


64 




48 d 


$0 


250 


105 


299 


48 


97 


48 


24 


48 


64 






JI 


226 


32 


129 


73 


315 


97 


24 


24 


64 






52 


468 


274 




48 


48 


48 






64 






J3 


185 


105 


299 


48 


73 


73 






64 


48 




H 


250 


32 


177 


43 


339 


48 




24 


64 






J5 


177 


323 


177 


48 


121 


48 




24 


64 






J6 


370 


32 




339 


48 


48 






113 






^^ 


177 


32 


177 


48 


315 


48 




24 


113 


24 


24 c 


J8 


250 


177 


347 


97 




48 






64 






J9 


177 


129 


153 


48 


363 


48 






64 






to 


177 


los 


153 


48 


316 


97 




24 


64 






ti 


177 


81 


81 


48 


339 


73 




48 


64 


24 


48 d 


^2 


177 


129 


105 


97 


315 


73 






64 




24 c 


« 


177 


129 


323 


73 


169 


48 






64 


64 


24 


\A 


177 


129 


177 


48 


315 


48 




24 


64 






♦5 


177 


81 


153 


97 


339 


48 






64 




24 a 


♦6 


202 


129 


105 


97 


339 


48 






64 






*7 


274 


32 


153 


48 


339 


48 




24 


64 






48 


177 


loS 


347 


48 


14s 


48 






64 


48 


48 d 


*9 


177 


los 


56 


48 


315 


145 


48 


24 


64 







a = Biblical literature, b = Graphics, graphic statics and geodesy. c = Geodesy. d== Architecture. 



The Sttcdies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 195 



TABLE 71 
Stanford 

























bO 






d 

c 
< 





"So 

c 
H 


6 

IS 

Ph 


6 


i 

U 

Ph 


i 







& 
^ 


'So 
a 
W 






I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 








I 


25 


132 




33 


140 


140 


372 






91 






2 


148 


47 


lOI 


85 


194 








31 


326 


(1) 




3 


50 


50 


83 




670 




41 






83 






4 












121 




48 


242 


32 


532 


24 d 


5 












145 






234 




597 




6 


17 


83 


140 


42 


331 




74 




17 


273 


17 




7 












149 






240 




612 




8 


33 




132 


58 


331 




83 






322 






9 












161 




339 


274 




274 




10 




50 


174 


33 


355 




50 


25 




273 






II 


198 




298 


25 


331 




74 




33 






17 ed. 


12 


32 


127 


167 


32 


262 




48 




48 


262 






13 












109 




16 


225 


16 


597 


16 d 


14 


31 


240 


78 


23 


326 










318 






15 




157 








471 


83 


107 


149 


17 






16 












33 




58 


240 




653 




^l 


17 


232 


140 


25 


240 






25 




273 




25 d 


18 




147 


31 






411 




16 


225 




163 




19 




140 


78 


62 


380 




16 


25 




287 






20 


8 




24 


24 


97 


137 


202 


25 


185 


32 


IS 


242 ed. 



d.=:Drawing. ed. ^Education. 
1 Also 23 art, i6 drawing and i6 ed. 
gymnasium. 



Also for all students save 5, 7, 14 and 18, from 8 to 50 in 



196 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 72 
Wellesley 





d 











E 




'u 








>. 






1-1 


H-i 


^ 
;= 


t! 


"S 




t 


en 


^ 




G 


ll 






6 

c 
< 





M 

^ 


(Is 


ffi 


Ph 









< 


tti 








I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 










I 




130 


III 


56 


III 


222 


185 


56 


74 


56 


19 


93 




2 




463 


260 


56 


56 






56 


74 




19 


74 




3 




130 


32,2, 


III 


241 




56 




74 




19 


93 




4 




74 


III 


56 


222 


407 




56 


74 




19 


74 




5 




352 


260 


56 


III 


130 






74 




19 


74 




6 




74 


407 


83 


194 




56 


56 


74 




19 


93 




7 




185 


296 


56 


III 


74 






74 


93 


19 


74 


56 ed. 


8 






379 


56 


157 






56 


74 




19 


74 




9 




537 


167 


56 






56 


56 


H 




19 


III 




10 




74 


148 


56 


167 




241 


56 


185 




19 


93 




II 


260 


130 


204 


56 


74 






III 


74 




19 


93 


56 ed. 


12 




352 


167 


56 




130 




56 


185 




19 


93 




13 




185 


352 


S6 


III 


56 


74 




74 




19 


74 


56 ed. 


14 


74 


260 


167 


S6 




56 




56 


185 


56 


19 


93 


56 ed. 


15 




352 


130 


56 


56 


56 


167 




74 




19 


93 


56 ed. 


16 




74 


148 


56 






74 




74 


537 


19 


74 




^l 




296 


333 


56 






74 


56 


74 




19 


93 


56 ed. 


18 




74 


426 


56 


167 






167 


74 




19 


74 




19 




287 


250 


56 


III 


185 






74 




19 


74 




20 


74 


352 


241 


56 


S6 


56 


56 




74 


93 


19 


93 




21 




130 


352 


56 


74 




56 




74 


93 


19 


93 


56 ed. 


22 


204 




389 


56 


74 






56 


74 


III 


19 


74 





The Studies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 197 



TABLE 73 
Wesleyan 







J 




M 
•^ 


i 





U 


■ '^ 










(J 





"m 


— j 


•^ 




-5 


-c 








c 
< 


^ 


la 
Pi 


w 


Oh 


.a 


5 


S 




I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


I 


teaching 


133 


150 


117 


59 


17 


142 


133 


150 


67 


2 




67 


117 


133 


92 


267 


100 


50 


17 


183 


3 


" 


133 


150 


100 


125 


33 


325 


133 


^^ 


133 


4 


" 


67 


50 


842 


159 


33 


^7 


100 


83 


67 


5 


" 


133 


217 


233 


142 


33 


83 


67 




67 


6 


« 


150 


300 


133 


109 


100 


67 


17 




67 


7 


" 


133 


183 


183 


100 


50 


100 


267 




67 


8 


" 


167 


150 


175 


159 


67 


150 


33 




117 


9 


" 


133 


4SO 


175 


42 


83 


87 


33 




67 


10 


" 


333 


200 


233 


100 




87 


50 


33 




11 


u 


217 


200 


175 


83 


67 


f^ 


33 


33 


67 


12 


« 


200 


200 


175 


109 


67 


83 


50 




67 


13 


" 


133 


406 


242 


159 


33 


83 


17 




67 


14 




67 


133 


425 


92 


33 


17 


133 


50 


67 


15 


law 


67 


167 


200 


75 


350 




50 


17 


67 


16 


« 


100 


183 


233 


75 


292 


67 


50 




117 


17 


<< 


133 


150 


225 


75 


200 


117 


50 


17 


67 


18 


" 


67 


100 


200 


192 


317 


33 


83 


50 


67 


19 


" 


133 


217 


125 


75 


267 


183 






150 


20 


" 


67 


283 


159 


59 


167 


67 


67 


17 


73 


21 


ministry 


133 


133 


325 


225 


67 


67 


17 


33 


? 


22 


" 


133 


100 


333 


142 


67 


t^ 


50 


83 


67 


23 


medicine 


183 


250 


142 


92 


33 


83 


200 




44 


24 


chemist 


158 


258 


83 


42 


83 


442 


50 




142 


25 


'' 


67 




109 


142 


33 


392 


100 


50 


67 


26 


science 


133 


150 


100 


117 


67 


83 


217 




67 


27 


business 


67 


83 


209 


175 


183 


117 


117 


17 


67 


28 




133 


200 


159 


92 


33 


292 


17 




'a^ 


29 


" 


67 


100 


133 


225 


133 


83 


75 


33 


67 


30 


" 


133 


233 


250 


92 


133 


117 


133 




67 


31 


" 


67 


317 


125 


142 




142 


133 


50 


67 


32 


" 


133 


150 


117 


109 


67 


300 


33 




167 


33 




67 


317 


225 


75 


150 


83 


67 


50 


67 


34 


philanthropy 


250 


167 


167 


75 


67 


192 




33 


117 


35 


insurance 


133 


217 


no 


59 


167 


183 


67 


33 


67 


36 


civil service 


133 


317 


109 


125 


92 


117 


§° 


33 


67 


37 


publishing 


67 


67 


375 


42 


267 


59 


83 




44 


38 


journalism 


133 


50 


325 


75 


350 


25 






67 



198 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 74 
Williams 











•^ 


1 


6 

0) 


^ 


'c^ 


'cH 








< 


1 


C 




ffi 




.-3 
pq 





1^ 




I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


I 


law 


267 


100 


217 


125 


ISO 


67 


33 




67 


2 


" 


75 


217 


275 


25 


242 


67 


33 




67 


3 


" 


192 


167 


208 


100 


142 


108 


33 




67 


4 


" 


167 


100 


233 






92 


33 


50 


67 


5 


" 


183 


200 


100 


125 


192 


67 


33 


100 


67 


6 


undecided 


167 


100 


258 


100 


107 


67 


33 


50 


67 


7 


" 


467 


100 


192 


100 


25 


67 


33 




67 


8 


" 


50 


275 


217 


75 


142 


108 


33 


75 


67 


9 


" 


183 


217 


258 




133 


100 


50 




67 


10 


" 


142 


250 


83 


50 


175 


167 


33 


100 


67 


II 


" 


208 


117 


167 


75 


192 


67 


33 


100 


67 


12 




208 


100 


108 


50 


242 


108 


33 


100 


67 


13 


teaching 


408 


117 


167 




217 


67 


33 




67 


14 


" 


283 


50 


117 


25 


75 


283 


50 


50 


67 


15 


" 


233 


217 


117 


75 


217 


67 


33 


50 


67 


16 


adv. study 


167 


50 


58 


50 


417 


67 


33 






17 


" " 


217 




225 


75 


92 


67 


33 


25 


67 


18 


medicine 


183 


233 


117 


25 


100 


200 


125 


50 


67 


19 




50 


308 


200 


75 


142 


200 






67 


20 


engineering 


50 


167 


200 


25 


75 


283 


50 


25 


167 


21 


" 


183 


117 


117 




192 


67 


50 


50 


233 


22 


chemist 


183 


50 


58 




75 


208 


50 


100 


233 


23 


M. I. T. (1) 


183 


167 


117 


50 


50 


200 




75 


183 


24 


varnish 


183 


117 


3i^ 


75 


192 


150 






67 


25 


manufacturing 


50 


167 


183 


25 


192 


250 






142 


26 


shoes 


50 


267 


167 


150 




100 


33 




58 


27 


publishing 


167 


150 


200 


50 


283 


125 




50 


67 


28 


library supplies 


167 


167 


175 


125 


133 


67 


33 




67 


29 


broker 


117 


117 


133 


75 


142 


192 


33 


50 


67 


30 


travel 


50 


283 


125 


75 


167 




33 


125 


67 



1 M. I. T. equals "study at Mass. Inst, of Tech. 



The Studies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 199 











TABLE 7S 


















Yale 










d 









<J 1 E 1 














J3 


>2 


-C 





- 1 ^ 


^ 


? 




3 








1 




a 
W 


13 


J 

S i £ 


1 lyj 

5 


4; 



^ 
rt 
S 


< 


1 




















— 




I 


2 


3 


4 

SO 

100 
67 


i 5 , 6 
1 

333 

317 

167 
1 SI 7 ' SO 


7 


8 


9 


10 


j 11 


I 

2 

3 

4 
5 


law 


217 

100 

317 

50 


167 
217 

50 
167 


167 
167 

ISO 


33 
17 


1 50 
100 50 

83 =;o 


33 


1 

a 








200 


SO 


{ 417 ISO 






SO 






6 

7 


u 


50 


50 
267 


200 


S3 


467 1 SO 




83 


50 






8 


u 




267 


i° 


367 50 


17 




50 
50 






9 

10 


u 


SO 


250 


ISO 


83 


283 1 




83 






" 


100 
50 


200 
183 


133 
183 


133 
117 


j 283 100 
283 ' 50 




33 
33 


SO 
67 


33 
17 


SO 


II 
12 


unknown 


50 


133 


183 


83 


333 ! ISO 




67 








13 




50 


100 


200 


67 


250 ; 183 




67 


133 






14 


u 


50 


300 


200 


133 


ISO ! so 


17 




I 100 






15 


u 




317 


117 


100 


83 100 


67 


117 


100 


17 










100 


217 


100 


300 100 j 


67 


100 




16 
17 
18 


w 


367 


267 


83 


117 


100 1 17 


83 








u 


233 


200 


17 


SO 


367 100 




133 
50 






19 


u 


17 


50 


233 


183 367 100 


83 






20 


" 


100 
350 


183 


183 
167 


217 
83 


233 
ISO 




100 
117 


17 




133 


21 
22 


ii 


200 


100 


133 


67 


317 


17 


100 






50 

b 


23 

24 


" 


367 


283 
233 


250 
167 


33 317 I 17 
SO 83 50 


83 


17 
SO 




25 


a 




100 


ISO 


S3 


467 lOO 1 


83 


50 










150 


133 


267 


100 


183 so i 17 


33 


50 


33 




26 


a 










: 










27 
28 


:; 


133 
50 


150 
183 


100 
200 


83 
50 


317 i SO 
183 : 183 


17 


83 
33 


SO 
100 


17 




29 
30 


" 


200 
100 
150 


100 
250 
100 


167 
100 

217 


133 1 

167 

167 


2S3 
217 
2SO 100 


17 


83 
83 
33 




17 
33 


50 


31 
32 


u 


50 


i^.^ 


ISO 




300 100 1 17 1 




50 






33 
34 


" 




333 1 
250 


183 


100 
167 1 


247 
150 


100 

1 so 1 


1 
17 


SO 
67 


50 
50 


33 




35 


■< 


100 


100 


167 


SO 


150 


183 1 




67 


233 j 


1 








150 


^33 


ISO 


100 


350 




17 


83 




1 


50 


36 

37 


(, 


233 


67 


83 


100 


333 


100 


17 




100 






38 





233 


50 


200 


P 


433 






83 






SO 
50 


39 

40 


teaching 


117 
233 


so 
167 
200 


ISO 
283 
167 


67 

SO 

100 


467 
3 SO 
167 


100 1 

SO 


17 
17 
17 


117 
100 
33 


50 
17 
50 




41 
42 
43 
44 
45 


literature and education 

pubHshing 

medicine 


200 
17 

TOO 

50 


283 
183 
267 
183 


183 
267 
250 
233 


117 
117 
100 
83 


217 

83 

167 

267 


50 1 

2SO 67 

SO 
100 17 


83 
67 


50 
33 


17 










233 


233 


167 


183 


100 [ 17 


33 


67 


17 




46 

47 


;; 


100 


133 


217 




250 


1 
ISO j 67 


33 


SO 






48 


medical missionary , 


100 


ISO 

ISO 1 


300 
167 


83 


267 
167 


50 ; 17 
200 1 117 


33 

SO 1 


SO 
SO 


17 


SO 




a = 


=Archa 


eology 


67. 


3 = Ar 


chasol 


ogy 33- 














200 



Educational A dministration 



TABLE 75 
Yale {continued) 







< 


1 


"to 
a 
W 


'2, 

PL, 











43 


1 

1 


:3 






I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


49 


ministry 


183 


SO 


117 


133 


3 SO 






117 






217 


50 




100 


150 


117 


ISO 


ISO 


so 




50 






283 


51 


" 


150 


100 


300 


117 


100 


50 






SO 




ISO 


52 


" 


283 


183 


133 


83 


183 


SO 




33 


100 






53 


missionary 


50 


100 


183 


100 


317 


100 


17 


33 


SO 




50 


54 




117 


ISO 


200 


100 


250 


100 


17 


33 


SO 






55 


journalism 


267 


317 


133 


100 


83 


SO 




33 


100 






56 


" 


233 


200 


183 


SO 


217 






83 




33 




57 


" 


100 


50 


167 


17 


SSO 






100 


SO 


17 




58 


banker 




300 


217 


3i 


267 


SO 




83 


SO 






59 


" 


83 


133 


283 


SO 


250 






133 


SO 






60 


" 


50 


183 


233 


67 


367 






83 


SO 






61 


" 


100 


ISO 


217 


33 


400 






100 








62 


bonds 


100 


ISO 


167 


83 


250 


SO 


17 


83 


100 






63 


broker 




133 


200 


117 


3SO 


50 


17 


100 


17 


17 




64 


" 


150 


150 


167 


SO 


333 






133 


SO 






65 


" 


133 


200 


100 


117 


317 






100 




17 


83 


66 


" 


83 


133 


67 


83 


383 


SO 




33 


33 


33 




67 


steel (or bonds) 


ISO 


SO 


283 


SO 


233 


SO 


17 


100 


SO 


17 




68 


broker 


150 


SO 


2SO 


83 


300 






133 




17 




69 


life ins. 


50 




250 


133 


433 


83 




SO 


50 






70 


geol. 




SO 


117 


3,3 


200 


183 




267 


117 






71 


arch. 


100 


3 SO 


117 




150 


100 






133 


67 




72 




83 


167 


217 




333 






100 


SO 


33 


b 


73 


florist 


100 




ISO 


117 


300 


. 150 


117 


83 








74 


consul 


50 


117 


83 


117 


467 






100 


33 




b 


75 


lumber 


50 


3,3 


200 


67 


500 


SO 




83 








76 


" 


50 


250 


250 


100 


217 


100 












77 


oil 


50 


100 


183 


100 


400 






117 


33 






78 


manufacturing 




183 


250 


SO 


3SO 


SO 




83 


SO 






79 




SO 


ISO 


283 


SO 


383 


SO 




100 


SO 




b 


80 


" 


SO 


250 


100 


SO 


250 


100 




33 


167 






81 


" 


133 


ISO 


183 




400 






17 


100 






82 


'* 


250 


100 


117 


117 


350 






83 






b 


83 


" 




100 


2SO 


100 


233 


100 




SO 


SO 






84 


" 


100 


3SO 


SO 


SO 


167 


ISO 




33 


100 






85 


" 


267 


67 


267 


50 


317 


33 




83 








86 


'< 


100 


100 


167 


100 


267 


100 




67 


67 






87 


business 


200 


50 


117 


183 


350 






100 








88 




100 


SO 


217 


100 


383 






83 


SO 






89 


" 


100 


133 


217 


167 


233 


SO 




83 


33 






90 


" 


100 


233 


100 


33 


367 


SO 




40 


SO 






91 


" 




ISO 


2SO 


117 


317 






100 


50 


17 




92 


" 


50 


i8s 


233 


83 


317 


SO 






SO 






93 


railroad 


200 


67 


217 


67 


317 


50 




83 








94 






317 


so 




167 


300 






167 






95 


steamship 


100 


133 


250 


3,3 


283 


SO 




100 






b 



b = Archaeology 33. 



The Studies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 201 

In the case of which group of studies — (a) the languages and 
literatures, (b) the science of human affairs and (c) the natural 
sciences — does the amount of study bear the lowest ratio to the 
significance of the study for modern civilization? What evidence 
is there that the accidental dominance of some personal view has 
made certain departments specially strong or has framed regula- 
tions requiring certain studies far more than is usually the case 
and so has led to a notably larger attention to one or another 
study in the one institution than is given to it by students in 
general? 

I note here two samples of the facts which the reader can get 
in response to such questions: 

Thus, Table 76 gives certain objective measures of the fre- 
quency of notable specialization in the case of these students. 

TABLE 76 
SPECIALIZATION 



Percentages Which Those Spending over Half of Their Course for the 
A. B. Degree in Studying Certain Groups of Subjects Are of the Total 
Number Attaining the A. B. Degree 





Lang, 
and 
Lit. 


Social. 

Hist. 
Econ. 

Gov. 


All 

Natural 
Sciences 


Engi- 
neering 


Medicine 


Archi- 
tecture 


Bowdoin 


61 
24 
14 
32 
31 

55 
53 
38 
26 


16 

5 
3 


6 

17 
6 

20 

5 
I 


10 

2 

^5 


10 
see note a. 

see note a. 
see note b. 




Columbia 

Cornell 

Harvard 

Princeton . 

Stanford 

W^ellesley 

W^esleyan 

Williams 

Yale 


5 



(a) If the combination of the " hist. econ. gov." group with law is counted as 
one group, and if the combination of science and medicine is counted as one 
group, we have added 40% at Stanford, and 70% at Cornell, of the former sort 
of speciahzation; and 12% at Cornell of the latter sort. 

(b) One case, 5%, for music and art. 



202 Educational Administration 

The above data of Table 76 give evidence (i) that specializa- 
tion toward a profession will occur when it is permitted, as at 
Stanford, Columbia and Cornell; (2) that free election (but 
within non-professional courses) increases specialization outside 
of languages and literatures (Harvard); (3) that, in the other 
colleges, specialization by candidates for the A. B. degree is 
chiefly in languages and literatures, a specialization artificially 
cultivated by the requirements in these subjects for entrance 
and graduation. The student is far less able to find out in the 
secondary school his interests and abihties in the sciences of 
nature and human affairs and, save at Harvard, is less free to 
devote much time to them in colleges. 

As a sample measurement of the extent of apparent ^^ scatter- 
ing^^ we may take for each college the percentage of graduates who 
did not devote at least one fifth of the total degree requirement 
to any one of the following: (i) Ancient language, (2) Modern 
foreign languages, (3) Enghsh, (4) Philosophy, etc. (5) History, 
(6) Economics, (7) Government and pubKc law, (8) Physics and 
chemistry, (9) Biological science, (10) Other natural sciences, 
(11) Mathematics, (12) Art and music, (13) Education, (14) Law, 
(15) Medicine, (16) Engineering, (17) Architecture. 

The percentages are given in Table 77. 

TABLE 77 
The Frequency of "Scattering" 

Bowdoin o 

Columbia o 

Cornell o 

Harvard 12 

Princeton 46 

Stanford o 

Wellesley o 

Wesleyan 8 

Williams 5 

Yale 7 



The Studies Actually Taken for the A. B. Degree 203 

Of these cases of apparent diffusion over half are individuals 
each giving three tenths of the degree requirement to history, 
economics, government and public law; many of the others repre- 
sent conceivably closely related work {e. g. of the six Harvard 
cases, Nos. 10, 26, 28 and 50). 



PART IV 

STUDIES OF SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENTS 



§ i8. Means of Measuring Educational Products 

Any educational effect or achievement is a change in some 
individual or group. Such a change is demonstrated by the 
attainment of some condition or status known not to have existed 
prior to the action of the educational force in question. It is 
measured by the comparison of the condition without and that 
with the action of the force. We prove the existence of and 
measure changes in human beings as elsewhere by comparing two 
static conditions. 

These conditions are known to us only by their objective mani- 
festations, their productions of observable facts, sums done, books 
read, lies not told, illness not suffered, and so on through the 
endless Hst of facts produced or prevented. 

Observation of an individual's life leads us to define and meas- 
ure his condition or status in any particular in one of two ways, 
either (i) as an amount of some thing or quality or power, or 
(2) as a position in comparison with the conditions of other men. 

Thus a boy, in penmanship, may be measured (i) as writing 
a '' barely legible" hand, or (2) as being next to the worst boy of 
a hundred of his age. Thus a girl, in knowledge of the German 
language, may be measured as (i) able '' to read easy German at 
sight" and as knowing a certain 1600 words, a certain 120 con- 
structions and a certain system of forms, or (2) as having the 
best acquaintance with German of any first year student. 

That a pupil can "add and subtract with integers," or can "read 
words of one syllable," or can cook edible bread — these are all 
measurements by the absolute amount of something, however 
vaguely and crudely the amount is defined. That a pupil is a 
"good student," or that he was graded "excellent" in history, or 
that a man of science is in the upper five hundred of the Cat- 

207 



2o8 Educational Administration 

tell list, or that a poet is '' eminent" — these are all measurements 
by relative position. 

Educational measurements of the former sort can be improved 
by defining exactly and objectively what is meant by any given 
measure so that we can all mean the same thing by it, and by 
getting aids to convenient and precise identification of any condi- 
tion or status as equivalent to some exactly defined measure. 

Educational measurements of the latter sort can be improved 
by defining the relative positions — e. g. as 29th from the top of 
1000— and by defining the group in relation to which the fact is 
placed — e. g. as twelve-year-old children in New York City in 
1910, or as compositions written in the first year of high school 
in an hour's time without preparation or assistance, or as '' the 
thousand most eminent men of science in America." 

Educational measurements of the latter sort, though of great 
value when properly treated, are essentially inferior to those of 
the former sort. Other things being equal, reference to some 
objective scale or series of standard amounts of the thing in 
question, is much preferable to reference to a given place in a 
total series of miscellaneous samples of the thing. And one 
chief task of the science of education is to work out units and 
scales for educational forces and products as the physical sciences 
have done for mass, temperature, work, electrical potential, 
electrical energy, and the like. 

As a sample of the methods and results of such studies of the 
means of measuring educational achievement, I quote from a 
monograph on Handwriting by one of the present authors. 

The Construction of a Scale Jar Quality of Handwriting in the case 
of Children in 'Grades 5 to 8 

If one selects from children's written work 1000 samples ranging 
from the best to the worst handwriting found in grades 5 to 8 



Means of Measuring Educational Products 209 

and tries to rank these 1000 samples in order of merit for hand- 
writing, one finds that he cannot make 1000 such ranks. Some 
of the handwritings will be indistinguishable in ''goodness" or 
"quality" or "merit." Nor can one make 100 such ranks. Nor 
can one make 40. One can make about 20, but if he so ranks the 
samples a number of times he gets substantially the same aver- 
age result as he gets when he ranks them a number of times in 
10 or II groups. To get an individual's judgment of the relative 
merits of the 1000 samples it is sufficient to have him rank them 
in 10 or II groups three or four times. If he grades in 10 groups 
and tries to make the differences in ''goodness" or "quality" or 
"merit" all equal — to make, that is, the sample he puts in the 
highest group (call it 11) as much superior to those in the next 
highest group (call it 10) as the latter are to those he puts in the 
second from the highest group (call it 9), etc., etc. — we have in 
the average ^ result of his groupings his judgment of the relative 
merits of the samples in a specially convenient form. For in- 
stance, if he grades sample 217 as in group 5 three times, as in 
group 4 once, and as in group 6 once, and grades sample 218 as 
in group 6 three times, in group 5 once and in group 7 once, he 
judges 218 to be "i" better than 217, "i " being, in the indi- 
vidual's judgment, one tenth of the difference between group i 
and group 11. 

If thirty or forty individuals chosen from competent judges of 
handwriting thus judge the 1000 samples, the average ^ of all 
their gradings of a sample, gives approximately its relative merit 
in the judgment of competent judges in general. If they grade 
sample 317 in group 3 two times, in group 4 five times, in group 
5 thirteen times, in group 6 thirteen times, in group 7 five times, 
and in group 8 two times, their average or median grade for it is 
5.5. If their average or median grade for sample 318 is 6.4, they 
esteem 318 as .9 better than 317. The .9 means, in their judg- 

^ Except for certain factors which will be described on page 226. 



2IO Educational Administration 

ment, nine tenths of one tenth of the difference between grade 
I and grade ii. 

If now from all the looo samples we could find some which 
were graded exactly i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, by the 
average or median ^ judgment of 30 or 40 competent judges, each 
grading the set into groups i to 1 1 by what he thinks are equal 
steps in merit, we would have a very useful scale of merit in 
handwriting. It would include all grades from the worst to the 
best and would proceed by what were, by the average competent 
opinion, equal steps. Or, if we could find some graded 1.5, 2.4, 
3.3, 4.2, 5.1, 6.0, 6.9, 7.8, 8.7, 9.6, and 10.5, we would have a scale 
nearly as useful. It would not be so likely to include the very 
worst and very best samples, but would proceed by equal steps, 
as before. 

The scale which I shall proceed to describe was obtained by a 
method in principle the same as the above. 

Such a scale could be got in a different way, as follows: Suppose 
competent judges to compare each sample with every other, 
stating in each case which was better. If then we picked out 
samples a, b, c, d, etc., such that a was judged better than b 
just as often as b was judged better than c, and just as often as 
c was judged better than d, and so on, we would have, in samples 
a, b, c, d, etc., a scale by equal steps, if two other conditions were 
fulfilled by them. The first of these conditions would be that a 
should not be judged better than b and worse than b equally 
often. For it if were, a would be equal to b, b to c, c to d, and 
so on, and we would have no extent to our scale. The second 
of these conditions would be that a should not always be 
judged better than b. For, if it were, it might be just enough 
better to barely be so judged, or it might be very, very much 
better. 

Only if differences are not always noticed can we say that 

^ Except for certain factors which will be described on page 226. 



Means of Measuring Educational Products 211 

differences equally often noticed are equal. But if we had, as 
a result of the judgments, facts like those below, we could say 
that a, b, c, d, etc., represented samples of writing progressing 
by equal steps of difference in quality. 

1000 comparisons of a, b, c, d, etc., being made: 

a was judged better than b in 73 per cent, equal to b in 1 1 per 
cent, and worse than b in 16 per cent of the judgments. 

b was judged better than c in 73 per cent, equal to c in 11 per 
cent, and worse than c in 16 per cent of the judgments. 

c was judged better than d in 73 per cent, equal to b in 1 1 per 
cent, and worse than b in 16 per cent of the judgments, and so 
on for d-e, e-f, n. 

The scale which I shall describe was tested throughout by this 
second method. The two methods do not give results that corre- 
spond exactly. The variations follow this rule: Judges will notice 
differences between poor samples when they compare them directly 
one with another which they would not count in rating them 
by a mental scale. For example, suppose samples a, b, c and d 
to be rated 10, 9, 3, and 2 by comparison with a mental scale of 
eleven grades by equal steps. The percentage of judges regarding 
10 as better than 9 will be smaller than that regarding 3 as better 
than 2. 

Since we get two different scales by the two methods, there 
are four alternatives. We may adopt one or the other or combine 
them, or give the results by both methods. I shall take the latter 
alternative, but shall at this point present only the scale as 
derived by the first method.^ 

The scale given here is then a scale in which the steps of 
difference are equal in the sense of being called equal by com- 
petent judges. Equal will mean just this in the following 
discussion. 

^ For the scale as derived by the second method see Section 1 2 of The Teachers' 
College Record, March, igio. 



212 Educational Administration 

The Nature of the Scale 

Pages 213 to 222 contain or rather are the upper part of the 
scale for merit of the handwriting of children of grades 5 to 
8. . . . Each set of samples represents a point on this scale. The 
samples on page 213 are of quahty 18 and 17; the samples on 
page 214 are of quahty 16; the samples on pages 215 and 216 are 
of quahty 15; and so on, as far as quahty 11. I show also 
quahty 5 (on page 223) and the quahty chosen as approximately 
zero (on page 224). 

The use of 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 for these 
qualities of handwriting means, first of all, that 14 is as much 
better than 13, as 13 is than 12; that 13 is as much better than 12, 
as 12 is than 11, and so on. In the second place it means that 
quahty 14 is two times as far above o merit in handwriting as 
quality 7 is; that quality 16 is twice as far above o merit in hand- 
writing as quality 8 is, and so on. Zero merit is defined roughly 
as writing as bad as sample 140 (see page 224), as a handwriting, 
recognizable as such, but of absolutely no merit as handwriting. 
The use of several samples under one quahty means that those 
samples are of equal merit. The full scale ^ includes samples of as 
many different styles as could be obtained, so that in using the 
scale the merit of any sample of any style of writing can be quickly 
ascertained by comparison with the scale. The full scale also ex- 
tends in actual samples by children from nearly the worst writing ^ 
of fourth-grade children (quahty 5) to nearly the best writing of 
eighth-grade children (quality 17). The scale thus extends from 
a quality, better than which no pupil is expected to produce, down 
to a quality so bad as to be intolerable, and probably almost never 
found, in school practice in the grammar grades. 

^ For the complete scale, see The Teachers College Record, March, 1910, in 
p. II fif. 

2 In a formal exercise in writing at their " natural " rate. 



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Means of Measuring Educational Products 225 

If one had a finer scale, its use would give but slightly more 
accurate results, and would require more practice and more time. 

Any specimen of handwriting is measured by this scale by put- 
ting it alongside the scale, as it were, and seeing to what point on 
the scale it is nearest. If one wishes to measure more finely than 
to units, he can add or subtract a fraction according as the sample 
to be measured seems better or worse than the quality of the scale 
to which it is nearest. 

The sample to be measured should, for convenience, be exam- 
ined with the entire scale in view. If the scale's samples are 
arranged in order on a table or against a wall, the examined 
sample is easily compared with them. The measurer then decides 
what quality of the scale the sample possesses and records the 
measure. The measurer should be, of course, careful not to 
decide its grade because of its likeness in style, but only because 
of its likeness in quality to some sample of the scale. If, for in- 
stance, one has a pronounced vertical that is really of quality 18, 
one must not call it quahty 17, because it is in style more like 
sample 141 than like the sample of quality 18. The measure may 
be made more and more accurate by having other judges also 
measure, each always in ignorance of the ratings given by the 
others. In default of other judges, the measure may be made 
more accurate by rating the sample two or three times, each time 
in ignorance of the ratings previously given. An individual may 
be measured more accurately by using several samples of his 
writing, each being rated in ignorance of the ratings given to the 
other samples. 

The Derivation of the Scales 

I shall give here only such notes as are likely to be helpful to 
any one who is stimulated by this scale to construct similar scales 
for other educational products. The principles stated here for 



226 Educational Administration 

a scale for merit in handwriting are valid for other educational 
products as well. 

To construct a scale by which to measure various qualities 
(that is, amounts of merit) in handwriting ranging from, say, 
X to x+y, it is desirable to have samples of quality, not only of 
every degree from x to x+y, but also of qualities worse than x 
and of qualities better than x+y. The reason is that otherwise 
the exact values of samples at x or x plus a slight amount and 
samples at x+y or x+y minus a shght amount cannot be directly 
measured, but only inferred. 

For example, call x i and y lo. X-\-y then being ii, x or i is 
nearly the worst and x+y or ii is nearly the best of a series of 
samples, ranging continuously from x to x+y. 

If now any one is required to fix in mind ii points including 
X (or i) and x+y (or ii) differing each from the next by 
equal amounts, and to rate each of the samples as i, 2, 3, — 9, 10, 
or II, according to which of these mentally fixed points it seems 
most like, he can err by rating a sample as 2 or 3 when it is really 
I, but cannot err by rating it o or minus i when it is really i. 
Similarly he can err by rating it 9 or 10 when it is really 11, but 
cannot err by rating it 12 or 13. 

Unless the set of samples to be rated includes some samples, 
one, two, three, and even four grades better than the best quality 
(x+y) to be represented in the final scale and also some samples 
one, two, three grades worse than the worst quality (x) to be rep- 
resented in the final scale, one cannot get the values of x+y and x 
themselves save by inference. 

Hence, to make a scale for the handwritings of, say, lo-year- 
old school children conveniently, it is necessary to have a collec- 
tion of samples varying in quality from much below the worst to 
much above the best of their writings. This involves the use of 
''unnatural" samples, which may seem very objectionable, but 
which as a matter of fact does little or no harm. 



Means of Measuring Educational Products 227 

In the case of a scale for the merit of Enghsh compositions by 
high school pupils one should start from a collection of compo- 
sitions ranging by small gradations from compositions much 
worse than the worst point on the final scale is to be, to composi- 
tions much better than the best point on the final scale is to be. 
Here the extremely bad ones may be obtained by artificial con- 
struction, from the feeble-minded, or from very old and stupid 
grammar school children. The extremely good ones may be 
obtained from the printed or manuscript compositions in youth 
by gifted authors. 

To get samples exactly situated at points differing progressively 
by equal steps requires that the original set range from one ex- 
treme to the other by very shght gradations. This means for 
practical purposes that one must have at the start a very large 
number of samples. After these have been graded by enough 
judges to rate each roughly, only those which are near the points 
to be represented by the scale need be graded further. As the 
value of each sample of this narrower selection is determined 
more exactly by further judgments, only those very near the 
points to be represented on the final scale need be preserved for 
still further judgments; and so on till the values of enough samples 
are determined to the degree of precision required for the scale 
itself. 

Points on the scale exactly determined, but not at progressively 
equal steps, can be got with far less labor. If, for example, after 
a single rating I had picked samples at intervals from the best 
to the worst and then had only these few samples rated by the 
twenty to seventy judges, the value of each could have been 
stated nearly as exactly as is the case on the samples of the scale. 
But there would form a series like 17.33, 16.65, 16.28, 15.82, 15.40, 
15.47, 15.23, 14.95, 14-7? ^tc, instead of the approximate 17, 16, 
15, 15, 15, 15, 15, 14, 13, 13. 13. etc., of the scale. They would 
have served the purpose of a scale as well so far as aiding an ob- 



228 Educational Administration 

server to make exact measurements which any other observer 
could verify, and to report them unambiguously, but the labor of 
allowing for the decimal values or of computing measures ex- 
pressed in awkwardly long numbers would burden each person 
using the scale. If the scale were designed for use only by scientific 
investigators of education, I should have economized in respect to 
the number of samples rated, had far more ratings of each sample, 
and presented a scale of very exactly determined qualities but 
at irregular intervals. For the common use of pupils, teachers, 
and supervisory officers a less precise scale by approximately 
equal steps seemed far more valuable. 

It is possible that the determination of the amount of differ- 
ence between their median values by the percentage of judges 
noticing the difference is preferable to the determination by the 
amount of difference between the median values, as given by 
judges attempting to apply to each a scale of mentally equal 
differences. I used both methods. 

In general, the experience in constructing this scale gives great 
encouragement to the hope that for many educational facts, units 
and scales may be invented that shall enable us to think quanti- 
tatively in somewhat the same way that we can about facts of 
physics, chemistry, or economics. It has been commonly sup- 
posed that the great complexity of such facts as examination 
papers in spelling, manifestations of interest in history, acts of 
moral significance, habits of industry, essays, poems, inventions, 
rephes to questions demanding logical inferences, and other like 
results of education, prevents the samples composing any one 
such group from being measured by any one Knear scale at all 
comparable to a foot rule or thermometer or galvanometer. 

It is true that some judges find it hard to judge handwriting 
for the complex of legibility, beauty, ease, *^ character," etc., into 
which "quality" or ''goodness" or ''merit" resolves itself. But 
none of them found it impossible to do so, and most of them rated 



Means of Measuring Educational Products 229 

the writing for the complex — ''merit or goodness in your opinion," 
as readily as an appraiser would rank articles of sale by money 
price, or as a little child would arrange pieces of paper in the 
order of their size regardless of the fact that some were squares, 
some circles and some triangles. 

The entire history of the judgments of the merit of handwriting 
supports the claim that if a number of facts are known to vary 
in the amount of anything which can be thought of, they can 
be measured in respect to it. Otherwise, I may add, we would 
not know that they varied in it. Wherever we now properly use 
any comparative, we can by ingenuity learn to use defined points 
on a scale. 

Further acquaintance with the procedure by which a scale for 
the measurement of any objective educational product may be 
derived from a sufficient number of ratings by expert judges may 
be had by reading Dr. M. B. Hillegas' account of ''A Scale for 
the Measurement of Quahty in EngHsh Composition by Young 
People" (Teachers' College Record, Sept., 1912). By the voice 
of forty experts Sample 580 is regarded as of zero or ''just not 
any" merit as EngHsh writing by a young person in his 'teens. 

Quality o. 

580. Letter 

Dear Sir: I write to say that it aint a square deal Schools is I 
say they is I went to a school, red and gree green and brown aint 
it hi to bit I say he don't know his business not today nor yeater- 
day and you know it and I want Jennie to get me out. 

Sample 595 is judged to be better than sample 580 by 89.1 per 
cent of competent judges (202 in number) and so, by virtue of a 
theory of the distribution of judgments well known to psychol- 
ogists, is recorded as differing from sample 580 by 1.83 times the 



230 Educational Administration 

P. E. (the amount of difference which 75 per cent of the judges 
would discriminate correctly). 

Quality 1.83 

^g^. My Favorite Book 

the book I refer to read is Ichabod Crane, it is an grate book and 
I like to rede it. Tchabod Crame was a man and a man wrote 
a book and it is called Ichabod Crane i like it because the man 
called it ichabod crane when I read it for it is such a great book. 

Sample 618 is judged to be better than sample 595 by 69.8 per 
cent of the judges and so, by virtue of the theory just referred to, 
is recorded as differing from 595 by .77 times the P. E.; and con- 
sequently as differing from zero (sample 580) by 1.83 P. E.+.77 
P. E., or 2.60 P. E. 

Quality 2.60 

618. The Advantage of Tyranny 

Advantage evils are things of tyranny and there are many 
advantage evils. One thing is that when they opress the people 
they suffer awful I think it is a terrible thing when they say that 
you can be hanged down or trodden down without mercy and 
the tyranny does what they want there was tyrans in the revolu- 
tionary war and so they throwed off the yok. 

Sample 94 is judged to be better than sample 618 by 76.7 per 
cent of the judges, and so is recorded as differing from sample 
816 by 1.09 P. E.; and consequently as differing from the zero 
of the scale by 1.83 P. E.+.77 P. E.-hi.09 P. E., or 3.69 P. E. 

Quality 3.69 

g4. Sulla as a Tyrant 
When Sulla came back from his conquest Marius had put him- 
self consul so Sulla with the army he had with him in his conquest 



Means of Measuring Educational Products 231 

seized the government from Marius and put himself in consul 
and had a list of his enemys printy and the men whoes names 
were on this list we beheaded. 

So we have as a scale so far: 

Sample 580 as o 

595 " 1.83 
618 " 2.60 

94 " 3-69 

In a similar way Sample 51918 assigned a value of 4.74; sample 
534, a value of 5.85; sample 196, a value of 6.75; sample 221 a 
value of 7.72; and so on for the balance of the scale not presented 
here. 

jjp. De Qiiincy 

First: De Quincys mother was a beautifuul w^omen and 
through her De Quincy inhereted much of his genius. 

His running away from school enfluenced him much as he 
roamed through the woods, valleys and his mind became very 
meditative. 

The greatest enfluence of De Quincy 's life was the opium 
habit. If it was not for this habit it is doubtful whether we 
would now be reading his writings. 

His companions during his college course and even before 
that time were great enfluences. The surroundings of De Quincy 
were enfluences. Not only De Quincy's habit of opium but other 
habits which were peculiar to his life. 

His marriage to the woman which he did not especially care for. 

The many well educated and noteworthy friends of De Quincy. 

jj4. Fluellen 

The passages given show the following characteristic of 
Fluellen: his inclination to brag, his professed knowledge of His- 
tory, his complaining character, his great patriotism, pride of his 



232 Educational Administration 

leader, admired honesty, revengeful, love of fun and punishment 
of those who deserve it. 

ig6. Ichabod Crane 

Ichabod Crane was a schoolmaster in a place called Sleepy 
Hollow. He was tall and slim with broad shoulders, long arms 
that dangled far below his coat sleeves. His feet looked as if 
they might easily have been used for shovels. His nose was long 
and his entire frame was most loosely hung to-gether. 

221, Going Down with Victory 

As we road down Lombard Street, we saw flags waving from 
nearly every window. I surely felt proud that day to be the 
driver of the gaily decorated coach. Again and again we were 
cheered as we drove slowly to the postmasters, to await the 
coming of his majestie's mail. There wasn't one of the gaily 
bedecked coaches that could have compared with ours, in my 
estimation. So with waving flags and fluttering hearts we waited 
for the coming of the mail and the expected tidings of victory. 

When at last it did arrive the postmaster began to quickly 
sort out bundles, we waited anxiously. Immediately upon receiv- 
ing our bundles, I lashed the horses and they responded with a 
jump. Out into the country we drove at reckless speed — every- 
where spreading like wildfire the news, "Victory!" The exilera- 
ation that we all felt was shared with the horses. Up and down 
grade and over bridges, we drove at breakneck speed and spread- 
ing the news at every hamlet with that one cry ''Victory ! " When 
at last we were back home again, it was with the hope that we 
should have another ride some day with ''Victory." 



§ 19- School Achievement in Arithmetic 

Dr. C. W. Stone ['08] in his study of '' Arithmetical Abilities 
and Some of the Factors Determining Them " made a study of 
arithmetical achievements of children in the sixth grade in 
twenty-six school systems. This investigation evaluated the re- 
sults secured not only in the fundamental operations but also 
in reasoning. All of the tests were given by Dr. Stone himself 
under conditions as nearly identical as was possible. Great care 
was taken in securing the results as will appear from the follow- 
ing discussion and table. 

''The scores for the reasoning problems were determined from 
the result of two prehminary tests— one, giving one hundred 
sixth grade pupils all the time they needed to do the problems as 
well as they could in the order as printed; and another, giving one 
hundred sixth grade pupils all the time they needed to do prob- 
lems as well as they could in the reverse order from that as printed. 
The results as tabulated below in Table 78 show that scores for 
reasoning problems of Grade-six pupils can be very definitely ar- 
ranged in a scale on the basis of relative difficulty. Just what 
the scale should be can only be determined by determining the 
form of distribution and the location of the zero point. From 
what is known of these the scale of weighting shown in the last 
column of Table 78 is believed to be the best, and this is the one 
employed in the computations of this study. . . ." 

". . . . In both reasoning and fundamentals the scores 
used as a measure of the achievement of a system were computed 
by combining the scores of one hundred pupils. Where more than 
one hundred pupils were tested, the papers used were drawn at 
random, the number drawn from each class being determined by 
the ratio of its number to the total number tested in the system. 

233 



234 



Educational Administration 



Where less than one hundred pupils were tested, the combined 
scores made were raised to the basis of one hundred pupils." 

TABLE 78 
PRELIMINARY TESTS IN ARITHMETIC 

Reasoning — Unlimited Time 
100 Different Pupils Tested Each Time 



Number of 
Problems 


% Reasoned 


% Reasoned 


Average % 


Weight Ac- 
cording to 
Average % 
Correct 


Weight Used 


Correctly 


Correctly 


Reasoned 


as Probably 


as Printed 


as Reversed 


j Correctly 


the Best 


I 


95 


92.6 


93-8 




I 


2 


86 


82.2 


1 84.1 


I . I 


I 


3 


94 


89 


91-5 




I 


4 


80 


83 


81.5 


I-I5 


I 


5 


88 


86 


87 


I . I 


I 


6 


69 


57-4 


63.2 


1-5 


1.4 


7 


70 


80 


I 75 


1-25 


I . 2 


8 


29 


44 


1 36.5 


2.6 


1.6 


9 


19 


15-5 


17.2 


5-45 


2 


10 


24 


27.4 


25.7 


3-6 


2 


II 


17 


7-5 


12.3 


7.6 


2 


12 


7 


16.4 


II. 7 


8 


2 



Precautions Observed to Make the Scoring Accurate 

" The simplicity of the tests made the scoring comparatively 
easy, and with the observance of the following precautions it is 
believed that a high degree of accuracy was attained, (i) In so 
far as practicable, all the papers were scored by a single judge — 
only two persons being employed on any phase of the work for 
the entire twenty-six systems; (2) each problem was scored 
through one hundred or more papers, then the next followed 
through, etc.; (3) the score for each part of each problem, the 
errors, etc., were entered on a blank provided with a separate 
column for each item; (4) where there was doubt as to how the 
score should be made, the scorer made a written memorandum 



School Achievement in Arithmetic 235 

of how the case was finally decided and this memorandum served 
as the guide for all future similar cases." 



What the Scores Measure 

"As used in this study the words achievements, products, abili- 
ties, except where otherwise qualified, must necessarily refer to the 
results of the particular tests employed in this investigation. 
That some systems may achieve other and possibly quite as 
worth-while results from their arithmetic work is not denied; but 
what is denied is that any system can safely fail to attain good 
results in the work covered by these particular tests. Whatever 
else the arithmetic work may produce, it seems safe to say that 
by the end of the sixth school year, it should result in at least 
good abihty in the four fundamental operations and the simple, 
everyday kind of reasoning called for in these problems. It does 
not then seem unreasonable, in view of the precautions previ- 
ously enumerated, to claim that the scores made by the respective 
systems afford a reliable measure of the products of their respec- 
tive procedures in arithmetic." 

The following tables from Dr. Stone's study show the scores 
received by each of the twenty-six systems tested in reasoning 
and in fundamentals together with deviations from the median 
score, comparative achievements and comparative time expendi- 
ture and the ratio of time expenditures to abilities. 



236 



Educational A dministration 



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School Achievement in Arithmetic 



237 



TABLE Si 
The Relation of Achievement in Arithmetic to Time Allotment 





COMP.A.RATIVE 


Comparative Time 


Time Distribution 


Among 




Achievements 




Expenditure 






Grades 










"rt 


■si 


*^ 


H 






Lower 


numbers show u 


eek minutes 


Systems 


_ 




11 

■g.c 


'i'-^ 


-1 


2 — 


S 


devoted to arithmetic; 


upper show 




.2 


It 

.3 a 


.E a 


"3 ^ 


■g'rt 


*^.y 


per 


cent of school time devoted to 






C 

<u > 


c 

■111 


"o "S 

II 


arithmetic in each grade 














> 

< 


c)^'" 


t/^ 


CA! 


^ 


^ 


I 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


















7 


6 


12 


15 


15 


IS 


XXII . . . 


I 


I 




14 


1,150 


9.67s 


12 


100 


100 
7 


200 
9 


250 
10 


250 
9 


250 
13 


XXV. . . . 


3 


4 




2 


722 


8,700 


8 




100 

8 


140 
8 


155 
8 


130 

7 


197 
II 


XXII . . . 


aV^ 


5 




I 


507 


7,200 


7 


7 


90 
10 


90 
12 


90 
14 


90 
15 


147 
IS 


XX 


5 


7 




15 


1,161 


8,200 


14 


80 
2 


113 
12 


210 
20 


240 
20 


265 
24 


253 

23 


XVII.... 


7>2 


3 


12 


21 


1,283 


7,500 


17 


27 
2 


158 
14 


250 
15 


258 
IS 


300 
15 


290 

I--> 


VIII 


8 


^^ 




18 


1,258 


9,600 


13 


25 


233 
II 


250 
15 


250 
20 


250 
17 


250 

18 


XV 


8 


9 




16 


1,173 


8,025 


IS 


10 


147 
9 


213 
II 


292 
II 


250 
12 


271 
16 


Ill 


9 


10 


8 


6 


944 


8,025 


12 


125 


125 


150 
14 


ISO 
17 


165 

17 


229 
17 


XXIV. . . 


10 


2 


iS 


7 


950 


8,775 


II 




7 


200 
12 


250 
12 


250 
14 


250 

18 


X 


10 


1 4 


6 


5 


921 


8,550 


II 




88 
9 


154 
13 


184 
14 


216 
14 


279 
15 


I 


II 


13 


9 


9 


1,068 


9,375 


" 


28 


130 
20 


213 

20 


238 

2.1 


238 
20 


249 

23 


IV 


12 


4 


20 


26 


1,854 


8,400 


22 


249 


300 


306 


361 


300 


''I 


















8 


12 


14 ! 14 


15 


16 


II 


13 


15 


II 


17 


1,247 


9,900 


13 


121 

8 


192 
10 


217 
10 


225 
12 


233 
14 


259 
13 


XXI. ... 


13 


16 


10 


4 


865 


7,650 


II 


80 


100 
8 


100 
12 


180 
18 


210 
18 


I9S 
19 


VI 


13 


12 


14 


II 


1,126 


9,000 


13 


5 


127 
8 


177 
13 


266 
18 


266 
17 


290 
16 


XVI .... 


I4>^ 


6 


23 


12 


1,127 


9,000 


13 


75 


113 

26 


187 
23 


1i 


251 
19 


238 
19 


XIII .... 


IS 


17 


13 


25 


1,626 


8,475 


19 


6 


388 

5 


350 
15 


288 
20 


300 
20 


300 
19 


XVIII. . . 


16 


8 


24 


19 


1,265 


8,700 


IS 


75 
13 


75 
15 


"A 


300 
18 


300 
18 


290 
21 


IX 


17K 


19 


16 


22 


1,559 


9,000 


17 


200 


225 
II 


275 
15 


'li 


275 
18 


'?, 


XI 


18K 


22 


15 


10 


1,130 


8,575 


13 


15 


16 


216 
18 


250 
19 


250 
19 


257 
19 


XIV .... 


18K 


18 


10 


23 


1,560 


8,850 


18 


225 


245 1 270 


280 


270 


270 




















6 


18 


16 


19 


19 


XII 


19 


21 


17 


13 


1,148 


8,400 


14 


7 


81 
10 


226 
10 


25s 
13 


288 
13 


298 
17 


XXVI. . . 


22>-2 


23 


22 


3 


837 


7,200 


12 


80 
13 


125 
19 


125 
22 


150 

22 


150 

22 


207 
17 


VII 


2 2 1.1; 


20 


25 


24 


I.S73 


7,800 


20 


175 
8 


262 
10 


300 
II 


300 
12 


300 
13 


236 
13 


V 


23 


2.-; 


21 


8 


971 


8,700 


II 


113 

8 


1.54 
10 


167 
17 


175 
17 


183 
13 


179 
20 


XIX. ... 


25 


24 


26 


20 


1,276 


9,000 


14 


125 


1.50 


250 


250 


250 


301 



238 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 82 

Comparison of the Achievements of the Systems Having Less Than Median 
Time Cost with Those Having More 





Combined Scores of the Thirteen Systems 




With less than 

Median Time 

Cost 


With more than 

Median Time 

Cost 


With less than 

Median Time 

Cost 


With more than 

Median Time 

Cost 




Including home study 


Without home study 


Reasoning 

Fundamentals 


7,519 7,893 
40,751 40,273 


7,277 
37,165 


8,135 
43,859 



TABLE d,2> 
Ratio of Time Expenditures to Abilities 



Systems 



IV... 

XXHL 

XVH. . 

XHI . . 

XX... 

XVHL 

XIV.. 

VIII. . 

IX. .. 
XVL. 
XV. .. 
VII... 
XXIV 

II 

VI. . . 

I 

Ill . . . 

XII.. 

XXV.. 

X .... 

XI. .. 

XIX.. 

XXI.. 

v.. .. 

XXII. 
XXVI 



Average Ratios 


Reasoning Ratios 


Fundamental 


Ratios 




Time Cost 










Serial 


to Reason- 


Serial 


Time Cost 


Serial Ti 


me Cost 


Standing 


ing and to 


Standing 


to Rea- 


Standing to 


Funda- 


of Systems 


Funda- 
mentals 


of Systems 


sonmg 


of Systems r 


nentals 


I 


2.26 


I 


3-99 


4 


520 


2 




92 


2 


3 


22 


I 


624 


3 




65 


3 


2 


88 


7 


421 


4 




54 


4 


2 


55 


3 


S?>2> 


5 




45 


7 


2 


30 


2 


535 


6 




41 


5 


2 


48 


13 


336 


7 




40 


7 


2 


36 


6 


438 


8 




39 


8 


2 


Z2. 


5 


457 


9 




353 


9 


2 


25 


5 


457 


10 




352 


6 


2 


40 


18 


304 


II 




31 


II 


2 


20 


8 


422 


12 




28 


12 


2 


14 


9 


415 


13 




24 


10 


2 


21 


21 


270 


14 




22 


14 


2 


02 


7 


421 


15 




20 


13 


2 


04 


II 


354 


16 




15 


15 




93 


10 


363 


17 




05 


16 




77 


16 


331 


18 





943 


17 




55 


13 


33^ 


19 





941 


17 




55 


15 


333 


20 





93 


18 




53 


14 


335 


21 





913 


20 




48 


12 


346 


22 





91 


19 




50 


17 


311 


23 





82 


21 




37 


19 


293 


24 




67 


23 




06 


20 


272 


25 





65 


22 




08 


2i 


219 


26 





64 


24 




05 




227 



School Achievement in Artihmetic 239 

From this investigation Dr. Stone concludes, "That a large 
amount of time expended is no guarantee of a high standard of 
abilities may be convincingly seen by comparing the ratios of 
the five systems spending the smallest amount of time with the 
five spending the largest. Of the five spending the least time, the 
average ratio is .80, which corresponds with the 23d or the 3d 
from the best in ratio; and of the five spending the greatest 
amount of time, the average ratio is 1.57, which corresponds 
with the 4th poorest in ratio. 

"The last three tables have each shown the decided lack of 
relationship between time cost and abilities produced, and hence 
for these systems it is evident that there is practically no relation 
between time expenditure and arithmetical abilities; and, in 
view of the representative nature of these twenty-six systems, it 
is probable that this lack of relationship is the rule the country 
over. 

"This is not to say that a certain amount of time is not essen- 
tial to the production of arithmetical abihties; nor that, given the 
same other factors, operating equally well, the product will not 
increase somewhat with an increased time expenditure. What 
is claimed is that, as present practice goes, a large amount of 
time spent on arithmetic is no guarantee of a high degree of 
efficiency. If one were to choose at random among the schools 
with more than the median time given to arithmetic, the chances 
are about equal that he would get a school with an inferior prod- 
uct and conversely, if one were to choose among the schools with 
less than the median time cost, the chances are about equal that 
he would get a school with a superior product in arithmetic. 

" So far, then, as ability in arithmetic means abihty to handle 
such foundation work as is measured by the tests in this study, 
this * essential' has not necessarily suffered by the introduction 
of other subjects and the consequent reduction of its time allot- 
ment." 



240 Educational Administration 

Dr. Stone finds that the influence of the home is not responsible 
for differences in abiHties. He says: ''Environment probably 
has little effect on arithmetical abilities. Of the five highest 
systems, the majority of pupils of one came from a crowded 
tenement district, those of two from exceptionally good homes, 
and those of two from fair. Practically the same distribution is 
found among the five systems standing lowest." When the time 
devoted to home study is considered the correlation between 
abilities and time expenditure is somewhat closer. In the main, 
differences in abifities are to be explained by teaching and super- 
vision. These differences will grow less when teachers and super- 
visors know just what results they want to secure and when it 
is common to make such accurate measurements frequently. 



§ 20. School Achievement in Terms of Methods of Work 

Education aims to equip children with knowledge, with habits, 
with appreciations, with ideals and with methods of work. Too 
often the demand made upon the teacher both by supervisory 
officers and by the general public, leads him to emphasize results 
in knowledge or habit to the exclusion of any very definite at- 
tempt to secure power of appreciation, purposes of lasting signif- 
icance, or any adequate command of the methods to be employed 
in the education which takes place without the aid of a teacher. 
Teachers, especially in the elementary school, are apt to help 
pupils too much. In the higher schools one often hears a teacher 
require a class to study a given lesson, but seldom does one find 
a teacher much concerned about the method employed in satis- 
fying this demand. Both teaching and studying are most eco- 
nomically accompKshed when teacher or student, conscious of the 
learning processes, adapt themselves to these conditions imposed 
by the very nature of our mental life. 

Guiding children successfully in the development of their 
mental life as indicated by acquiring knowledge, or habits, or 
ideals, does not involve the result so much desired of abihty to 
continue this work independent of the help of the teacher. The 
method which the teacher finds successful must become the 
conscious tool of the pupil. The teacher who is successful merely 
through imitation, or by a process of trial and success cannot be 
expected to teach a boy how to work to best advantage for him- 
self. One very important reason for training teachers in the 
theory of teaching is found in this necessity for a knowledge of 
the principles of learning by one who would teach others how best 
to use such ability as he may possess. 

The only investigation of the results commonly secured, or 

241 



242 Educational Administration 

which we may hope to secure, in power to work independently 
on the part of school children is found in Dr. Lida B. Earhart's 
['08] "Systematic Study in the Elementary School." Some of 
the results of this study are presented in the pages which follow. 
It will be admitted that any possibility of adequate training 
for independent work depends upon the appreciation which the 
teacher has of the processes involved. Dr. Earhart asked a 
large number of teachers to answer the following questionnaire: 

1. Assuming that memorizing is one of the processes employed in stu(l> ing, tell 
how you would memorize a poem or a chapter in the Bible. 

2. Many teachers when directing pupils to study, tell them to think about the 
lesson. Enumerate the various things which you think ought to be done in " think- 
ing about a lesson." 

3. Is there anything else which you think ought to be done in studying a lesson? 

4. Do you do any of the things named under 1,2, and 3 more frecjuently than the 
others? If so, which are they? 

5. When you were a pupil in the Elementary School, were you taught to use any 
of these steps or processes systematically? If so, which ones? 

6. If you have taught in an Elementary School, have you ever trained your 
pupils there to use any of these steps or processes? If you have, which steps or 
processes were they? 

Some of Dr. Earhart's conclusions follow: 

''It is interesting to note that at least 78% of the teachers 
read or study a poem or chapter before memorizing it. . . . 

"Only 23.6% of the teachers report that they divide a selec- 
tion into thought units in memorizing, while a much longer num- 
ber use such mechanical divisions as Knes, sentences, or stanzas. 
Again, only about 11% reported that they pictured situations. 
i. e. imagined; 13% said they traced thought relations; and less 
than 6% that they associated the ideas of the poem or chapter 
with known facts. More than one-fourth reported that in memo- 
rizing they use cumulative repetition, i. e. the House- that- Jack 
Built order of procedure, going from line to line, then back again 
to the beginning for a fresh start. Wherever details are given 



School Achievement in Terms of Methods of Work 243 

explicitly enough to make the meaning clear, the mechanical 
side is seen to predominate. . . . 

''Some explanation of the failure of so many pupils to work 
systematically and effectively may be seen in the fact that in 
stating the various things which they think ought to be done in 
'thinking about a lesson' not more than 33 1-3% of the teachers 
agreed upon any one item. There were at least twenty things 
mentioned which should be done, and the element considered 
most important was indicated by one- third of the writers. This 
was, ' Find the important points ' — a very necessary thing to do 
in studying, the strange part being that so few of the teachers 
felt its importance. A number of the other items given are either 
so general as to give no idea of what the writers really meant, or 
they are mechanical, e. g. apperceive, reason, understand the 
meaning, memorize. Only 15% felt keenly enough to mention 
it the necessity of finding the main thought or problem. The 
questions arise: If teachers do not feel the necessity of finding 
the problem sufficiently to speak of it in describing the process 
of study, will they be likely to think of it when working with 
pupils? .... 

"Attention, interest, perception, apperception, imagination, 
memory, correlation, comparison, and reason — these make up 
one- third of the separate items in answer to the third question, 
and tell a minimum as to what is really to be done. The large 
number of items and the indefiniteness of many of them, show 
that these teachers do not clearly see the nature of study. No 
steps stand out strongly in the minds of a large number, but 
instead there is confusion of thought, and lack of agree- 
ment. . . . 

"In answering the questions: Do you do any of the things 
mentioned under i, 2, and 3, more frequently than the others? 
If so, which are they? the teachers limited the number of steps 
mentioned but still scattered their votes, showing the same fail- 



244 Educational Administration 

ure to recognize essential features. Twenty-four per cent said 
they memorized more frequently than anything else; and as low 
a per cent as appears, 1.2%, represents the number who recog- 
nized the importance of finding the aim or problem. . . . 

''The fifth question answered by the teachers was: When you 
were a pupil in the elementary school, were you taught to use any 
of these steps or processes systematically? If so, which ones? 
Eliminating those who reported definitely that they were not 
taught, those who did not remember, and those w^hose answers 
were not relevant — nearly 65% of the teachers, there are 35% 
left who say they were systematically taught. 20.6%, much 
more than half of this remnant, were taught to memorize, while 
the factors of logical study are hardly recognized at all in this 
report." 

Dr. Earhart also calls attention to the type of assignment 
as indicating a lack of appreciation on the part of teachers of the 
necessity for a problem or aim. 

"Five lesson assignments in sixth grade history were observed, 
and three recitations, the two exercises being separated in time. 
The results can be shown briefly. 



I. Total number of classes observed 5 

Classes Per ct 

Lesson assigned by subject 4 80 

Lesson assigned by pages or paragraphs 2 40 

Pupils directed to references i 20 

Pupils directed to ask questions i 20 

Pupils directed to read lesson i 20 

Pupils directed to read smoothly i 20 

Total classes visited 12 

Classes Per ct 

Number of assignments not observed 7 58.3 

Number of assignments by pages 2 16.7 

Number of assignments by subject 2 16.7 

Number of times teacher gave questions i 8.3 

The recitations showed these details: 

1. Total number of classes visited 12 

Classes Per ct 

2. Number of drill or review exercises 4 33-3 

3. Number of times teacher gave outline 3 25 . 



School Achievement in Terms of Methods of Work 245 

Classes Per ct. 

4. Number of times pupils found topics i 8.3 

5. Number of memory recitations observed i S.t, 

6. Number of times teacher supplemented text i d>.T^ 

7. Number of times pupils supplemented text i ^.t^ 

8. Number of times pupils reasoned or explained 5 41-7 

9. Number of times teacher questioned 9 75 . 

10. Number of recitations not observed 2 16.7 

'^ These observations, like most of the others, reveal the teacher 
doing nearly all of the work, and very little initiative or oppor- 
tunity for independent, constructive work left to the pupils. 
In not a single class did the pupils question or participate in 
discussion." 

Dr. Earhart took a fourth grade class in literature for sixteen 
lessons in order to discover how much could be accomphshed 
in that length of time toward teaching them how to study. Quo- 
tations from her description of the experiment and the results 
secured follow. 

"The early recitations showed that the pupils responded with 
interest to the subject matter, and that they desired information 
in regard to many things, these frequently being facts which 
the editor had omitted. They were ready to pass judgment as to 
character, as for example, when they commended Nausicaa's 
act of kindness to Ulysses. But these lessons showed, also, that 
the pupils needed to look for the problems in the story; that 
they needed training in analysis and organization of the material; 
in making out the pronunciation and meaning of words, and in 
thinking out the meaning of sentences. The teacher found, too, 
that she needed to eliminate herself more thoroughly, and throw 
more responsibility upon the class. 

''In the third lesson the pupils were asked to suggest ways for 
finding out the meaning of words needed in reading. Various 
means were presented, and at last the class decided to try to use 
another word in the place of the word not understood. After 
that lesson, they took care of meanings themselves, asking to 



246 Educational Administration 

have a word substituted for the word which they could not under- 
stand. They grew very critical, refusing definitions and explana- 
tions, and objecting to words whose substitution did not bring 
understanding or satisfaction. They would say, 'You did not do 
what I asked you,' and more than once a pupil was told to sit 
down because his answer was not what had been asked for. They 
were attempting to satisfy needs, and were very discriminating 
in their judgment about words. The previously felt difficulty 
about synonyms disappeared whenever the need of such words 
was felt. . . . 

**The first lesson showed that the pupils were not able to divide 
the lesson into parts. In the fourth lesson, they were asked to 
think of a good name for a certain part of the story and to write 
these names on paper. Out of a class of twenty, one began to 
write the story, and two or three did nothing. A few were absent. 
The rest gave the following Hst, which is a great gain over the 
first lesson: 

Ulysses meets Nausicaa. 

When Ulysses meets Nausicaa. 

Ulysses and Nausicaa. 

Ulysses speaking to Nausicaa. 

Nausicaa meets the stranger which is Ulysses. 

Ulysses. 

Ulysses gets food and drink. 

Ulysses goes to town. 

Nausicaa clothes Ulysses. 

*'A few other similar to these were given. 

''Towards the close of the series of lessons, after the pupils had 

read the booklet of eight pages entitled, Penelope and Telema- 

chus during Ulysses' Absence, they were asked to name in order 

the things they would talk about if they were telling the story 

to some one at home. They gave the following outline very 

promptly: 

The princes wish to marry Penelope. 
Penelope deceives the princes. 



School Achievement in Terms of Methods of Work 247 

Telemachus holds a council. 

Telemachus goes to inquire about Ulysses. 

Telemachus visits Nestor. 

Telemachus visits Menelaus. 

The suitors making ready to kill Telemachus. 

Penelope hears of Telemachus' absence. . . . 

"One example of their filling out and explaining situations was 
afforded by the answers to the question of a child who asked, 
'How did Ulysses know that Nausicaa was the daughter of a 
king? He had never seen her before.' The following replies were 
given: (i) 'Because she stayed, although the maidens ran away.' 
(2) 'Because she had mules.' (3) 'Because she had maids.' 
(4) 'Maybe she had nice clothes.' (5) 'Maybe she wore a band 
of gold on her head.' At another time, a child asked, 'Why did 
the suitors want to marry Penelope?' One little girl gave in 
substance this reply: 'Because she was gentle and kind, and was 
not lazy, but looked after the house. She could spin, and could 
weave beautiful cloth. She could do her own washing.' . . . 

"When the last booklet in the story of Ulysses was taken up, 
there was time for but one lesson with the class, so that results 
had to be hurried somewhat. The pupils had already stated the 
questions to be answered and these constituted the aims in read- 
ing this section. They were told to read through the entire book- 
let of eight pages silently, then to make a hst of the important sub- 
jects in it, to write any questions which they would like to have 
answered, and any words in place of which they would like to 
have other words used. These papers were written by the pupils 
with no help whatever save in regard to spelling, use of capital 
letters, and punctuation. Some of the papers are here reported 
just as they were written. 

ROSE 

1. Ulysses awakens. 

2. The swineherd gives food to Ulysses. 

3. Telemachus goes to the swineherd's house. 



248 Educational Administration 

4. Ulysses tells Telemachus that he is his beloved father. 

5. Ulysses dines with Telemachus, and the swineherd. 

6. Telemachus goes to town to see his mother. 

7. Telemachus tells Penelope what had happened when he was away. 

8. Ulysses goes to the palace as a beggar. 

9. Penelope hears of the shameful treatment. 

10. Ulysses tells Penelope what he had heard from Ulysses not long ago. 

11. The nurse gives Ulysses a bath. 

12. The nurse fells (feels) Ulysses scar. 

13. Ulysses kills the suitors. 

14. Telemachus and Ulysses goes to the house of Laertes. 

15. Ulysses reigned over Ithaca as beloved as before. 

Why did Ulysses kill the suitors, why did he not send them away? 
Why did Ulysses go to town as a beggar, why did he not show himself? 
Why didn't Ulysses tell the swineherd he was his master? 
Why did Telemachus and Ulysses store the weapons in the inner rooms? 
Why don't Ulysses tell Penelope that he was Ulysses instead 01 telling her that 
he has fought by Ulysses' side? 

Why did Ulysses sleep, why did he not wake up and go to town? 
Why did Ulysses go to the house of Laertes? 

scrip 

revels 

threatened 

dole 
EARL. 

1. Ulysses awakes. 

2. Ulysses and the swineherd. 

3. Ulysses meets Telemachus again. 

4. Penelope and Telemachus. 

5. Penelope and the beggar. 

6. The nurse recognizes Ulysses. 

7. Penelope gives a contest. 

8. Ulysses tries the bow. 

9. The death of the suitors. 

10. Ulysses rules over Ithaca again. 

Why did Ulysses go to the swineherd? 

Why did Ulysses beg for his bread? 

Why didn't Ulysses tell Penelope that he was her husband? 

Why did Telemachus go to the house of Laertes? 

procured treachery rumor 

scrip abusive adjourned 

thong bower covenant 

revels combat reigned 



School Achievement in Terms of Methods of Work 249 

"Several papers were prepared which were quite equal to Earl's 
and some might be considered better. The rest would grade in 
excellence from these down to the following one prepared by a 
boy who had been in class only two or three days when the exer- 
cise was given: 

1. When Ulysses wakened from his sleep. 

2. He bought from a sheapherd a ragged dirty clock (cloak). 

3. He went to visit the swineherd. 

4. As she bathed his feet she touched the scar. 

''This series of lessons showed plainly that pupils in the fourth 
grade are capable of finding problems for themselves, of organiz- 
ing the lesson, of asking intelligent questions, of forming sensible 
hypotheses, of exercising judgment as to the statements made by 
the author, of mastering formal difficulties for themselves, and, 
in various ways, of exercising initiative wisely and profitably. 
It shows, too, that when pupils work in such a way they work 
with zeal, and accomplish much more than is done when they 
must spend time upon useless details and mechanical methods 
of working." 



§ 21. School Records and Reports 

The development of adequate school records and significant 
school reports may be traced on the one hand to the growth of 
the profession of education, and on the other to the demand which 
the public is now making for complete information concerning 
pubhc enterprises. There was a time when it was customary for 
school boards or school committees to make a report consisting 
largely in a statement of their activities in hiring teachers, build- 
ing and equipping school plants, and in visiting the schools. 
To-day teachers are hired and schools are organized and admin- 
istered by an educational expert, and in like mianner school re- 
ports are an account of the results secured under the direction 
of the school's chief executive officer. When school boards told 
of their activities, the schools were relatively few and the organi- 
zation simple. The reports which they rendered demanded little 
in the way of expert knowledge either of schools or of refined 
methods of recording or reporting school activities. To-day 
there are many people who judge of the efficiency of a school 
superintendent in terms of his ability to satisfy any inquiry 
which may be made concerning the course of study, the teachers, 
the pupils, or fiscal aspects of the problem with w^hich he deals, 
together with any interrelation which may exist among these 
several parts of the whole problem. 

It is not easy to distinguish between records and reports. The 
records which are accumulated in any one field furnish the raw 
material of the report which is made concerning this aspect of 
school practice. Original records are significant only as they are 
combined in such a way as to throw light upon the particular 
problems involved. Of course it is true that reports commonly 
include much discussion of school policy which is not based in 

250 



School Records and Reports 251 

any considerable degree upon school records. However, with 
the demand that is being made with greater and greater frequency 
that any problem be supported with a statement of the results 
which may be expected, makes the relationship between records 
kept in the school system itself, or derived from other school 
systems, a matter of primary importance even in that part of the 
report which is frankly a discussion of future development. In- 
deed, it may well be claimed that it is a primary function of 
school records to make known school needs. 

It is only in recent years that any considerable addition has 
been given to the form of the records or reports of school systems. 
A few years ago a report of attendance giving the total number 
enrolled and the average daily attendance, would probably 
have been considered satisfactory. In addition to the record of^ 
attendance, one would probably have found a scholarship record 
kept by each teacher. In the sam_e system one would have 
found a' very simple system of accounting and a report of expendi- 
tures distributed among a very few items, such as teachers' sala- 
ries, text-books, stationery, fuel, and possibly a few other items. 
Quite commonly a large part of the total amount expended was 
reported as miscellaneous expenses. This tendency to report 
in terms of totals and averages has been superseded by the de- 
mand for all of the facts. Students of education, as well as those 
who are interested in public enterprises, whether in education 
or in some other field, have come to reaUze that it is necessary 
to know the facts in terms of their distribution, showing the 
limits or range within which the cases considered lie, the central 
tendency, variabiHty, and the like, if any adequate interpretation 
of the situation is to be hoped for (See article on Statistical 
Method). This demand for adequate statistical treatment of 
school facts is being met throughout the world to-day by an 
improved system of records and by more adequate reporting. As 
examples of this development, one might cite the cumulative 



252 



Educational Administration 



pupil record card, and the form for reporting fiscal statistics, 
which have been recently recommended by a committee of the 
Department of Superintendence of the National Education Asso- 
ciation. 

Five years ago there were very few cities, probably not more 
than thirty, in the United States who could, without very great 
difficulty, furnish a record of a pupil's school life from the time 
he entered school to the date upon which the inquiry was made. 
To-day there are more than two hundred cities who have reported 
to the committee referred to above that they are using a cumula- 
tive record card at least as adequate as the one recommended by 
the N. E. A. Committee. A copy of this card follows: 



Elementary School Record System— Promotion Record 

This card is to pass from teacher to teacher or from school to school 
as the pupil is promoted or transferred. It is to be filled out and sent 
to the principal's office when any change is made requiring a change 
in the office records. It is then to be sent to the teacher who has the 
pupil. 


(a) 
School 


(b) 
Date 
of ad- 
mis- 
sion 


(0 
Age Sept. I 


(d) 
Grade 


(e) 
Room 


(fl 

Days 
pres- 
ent 


(g) 
Health 


(h) 

Con- 
duct 


(i) 

Schol- 
arship 






Yrs. 


Mos. 


























































































































































































































































(over) 



School Records and Reports 



253 



(i) I. Last name 


(2) First name and initial 


Elementary School 






Record System — 
Admission, Dis- 
charge, AND Pro- 
motion Card. 


(3) Place of birth. . . 


(4) Date of birth 


(5) Vaccinated 


To be kept for every 
pupil and sent with 
the pupil when he is 
transferred to any 
school, either public 
or private, in the city 
or outside the city. 
Great care should be 
used to have the 
names complete and 
correct. 

Write all dates as 
follows. 191 2-9-25. 




(6) Name of parent or 
guardian. 


(7) Occupation of parent or 
guardian. 






(8) Residence. (Use one column at a time. Give new resi- 
dence when pupil is transferred.) 


(9) Date of 
discharge 


(10) Age 

1 








Yrs. 


Mas. \ 










j 


■ 








1 










1 


When a pupil is permanently discharged to work, to remain at home, or because of death, 
permanent illness, or commitment to an institution, this card is to be returned to the principal's 
office and a full statement of the cause of the pupil's discharge is to be made in the blank space 
remaining above. 

8-304 (.over) 



A cumulative record card similar to the one given above 
should be kept for every child throughout his entire school career. 
From such a pupil record it will be possible at any time during 
the pupil's attendance in pubKc schools to determine: i. The 
amount of attendance of individual pupils for one year; 2. com- 
parative rates of progress in schools having school terms differing 
in length; 3. classification of pupils by age and grade; 4. classi- 
fication of pupils for enrollment date (a) dupHcate enrollment in 
the school, (b) duplicate in other public schools in the same 



254 Educational Administration 

town or city, (c) duplicate enrollment from other public schools 
in the same city, (d) original enrollment from all other sources; 

5. the number of times a child has been detained in a grade; 

6. foreign birth or parentage as affecting progress; 7. kindergarten 
training as affecting progress; 8. transfers as affecting progress; 
9. the effect of attendance (or absences) on progress; 10. inquiries 
having to do with individual school management, as well as 
many other valuable and interesting facts about school children. 

The demand for better fiscal statistics is well illustrated by 
the form recommended by the National Education Association 
Committee, which follows: 



School Records and Reports 



255 



A. PAYMENTS 
Expenses (Cost of Conducting School System) 



Expenses of General Control (Overhead Charges) 
Board of education and secretary's office 



2. School elections and school census 

3. Finance offices and accounts 

4. Legal services :•■.••• 

5. Operation and maintenance of office building. 

6. Offices in charge of buildings and supplies. . . 



Total 



Salaries 



Other 
objects 



7. Office of superintendent of schools 

8. Enforcement of compulsory education and truancy laws. 

9. Other expenses of general control 



Total. 





Total 


Schools and Special Activities 




Day 

Schools 


Evening 
Schools 


1 


ll 


: Special schools 






is 

III 


-a 
c 


tn 


i 


b 

C 



1 

is 

C/2 


Expenses of Instruction 
II. Salaries of supervisors of grades 






































13. Salaries of principals and their 
















































































17. Stationery and supplies used in 




















































1 














































Expenses of Operation of 
School Plant 

20. Wages of janitors and other em- 




















21 Fuel 
















































































25. Other expenses of operation of 

















































































256 



Educational A dministration 



A. PAYMENTS— Co«//«MC(i 
I. Expenses (Cost of Conducting School System) — Conlinued 





Total 


Schools and Special Activities 




Day 

Schools 


Evening 
Schools 


1 

s 
s 


1 
l| 


1 






■^1 

III 

HE 




S 


1 


1 

I 


Expenses of Maintenance of 
School Plant 

27. Repair of buildings and upkeep 
of grounds 


















28. Repair and replacement of 




















20 Insurance. . 




i 















30. Other expenses of maintenance 
of school plant 




































3 1 . Total 








































Expenses of Auxiliary 
Agencies 

libraries 
32. Salaries 








































34. Other expenses 




















promotion of health 
35. Salaries 




















36. Other expenses 




















transportation of pupils 
37. Salaries 




















38. Other expenses 






1 


1 1 






















39. Total 










i 



















I 






Miscellaneous Expenses 
40. Payments to private schools. . . 












j 






41. Payments to schools of other 




















42. Care of children in institutions. 
































1 






44. Rent 












1 






45- Other miscellaneous expenses. . 












1 










1 


1 I 1 






46. Total 




i 


1 ! 







School Records and Reports 



257 



A. PAYMENTS— Co«/im;<c^ 
II. Outlays (Capital Acquisition and Construction) 























48. New buildings. . . 








































50. Equipment of new buildings and 
grounds. . . . 




















51. Equipment of old buildings, ex- 
clusive of replacements 








































52. Total 









































III. Other Payments 



53. Redemption of bonds $. 

54. Redemption of short -term loans 

55. Payment of warrants and orders of preceding year 

56. Payments to sinking funds 

57. Payments of interest 

58. Miscellaneous payments, including payments to trust funds, textbooks 

to be sold to pupils, etc 

59- Total 

60. Balances at close of year at $. 

61. Total payments and balances 



B. RECEIPTS 

Revenue Receipts 



62. Subventions and grants from State $. 

63. Subventions and grants from county 

64. Subventions and grants from other civil divisions 

65. Appropriations from city treasury 

66. General property taxes 

67. Business taxes (licenses, excise taxes, taxes on corporations, taxes on 

occupations, etc.) 

68. Poll taxes 

69. Fines and penalties 

70. Rents and interest 

71. Tuition and other fees from patrons 

72. Transfers from other districts in payment of tuition 

73. All other revenue 

74. Total revenue receipts 

Non-revenue Receipts 

75. Loans and bond sales $ . 

76. Warrants issued and unpaid 

77. Sales of real property and proceeds of insurance adjustment 

78. Sales of equipment and supplies 

79. Refund of payments 

80. Other non-revenue receipts 

81. Total non-revenue receipts 

82. Total receipts 

83. Balances at beginning of year 

84. Total receipts and balances 



258 



Educational Administration 



C. VALUE OF SCHOOL PROPERTIES 



CLASS OF BUILDINGS 


Total Value 
of Sites, 
Buildings, 

and 
Equipment 


Value of 
Sites and 
Buildings 


Value of 
Equipment 


Interest 

on Value 

of School 

Plant 


General control 




















Secondary schools 










Normal schoo's. 





















Special schools 





















A few years ago very fev^ cities could have distributed their 
expenditures in any such manner as is indicated in this form. It 
was not common either to indicate as clearly as is demanded 
above, the purpose for which money was spent, nor the particular 
type of institution or activity for which money was used. There 
are to-day four hundred and eighteen cities reporting to the 
N. E. A. Committee that their system of accounting enables them 
to give reports at least as adequate as that indicated in this form. 
This means, of course, that there has been in recent years an 
increased addition to the business aspect of school administration. 
In many cases it means that a special ofhcer, variously called a 
business manager, a secretary, a controller, or a school auditor, 
has been added to the staff employed by the Board of Education. 

Further illustration of the more adequate form of report may 
be indicated by calling attention to forms of reporting now com- 
monly used in our school reports. It was not unusual a few years 
ago to have school salaries reported as a single item. Manifestly 
the truth about salaries can be known only when we know how 
many teachers receive each of the several salary amounts, as 
indicated in a table like the following. Tables of this kind are 
not now uncommon. See Table 84. 



School Records and Reports 



259 



TABLE 84 



Number of Elementary -school Teachers with 
Salaries — 



$3 = 



Below 
I350 to 

400 to 

450 to 

500 to 

550 to 

600 to 

650 to 

700 to 

750 to 

800 to 

850 to 

900 to 

950 to 1,000. . . 
1,000 to 1,050. . . 
1,050 to 1,100. . . 
1,100 to 1,150. . . 
1,150 to 1,200. . . 
1,200 and abov-e. 



400. 

450- 
500. 

550- 
600. 
650. 
700. 
750. 
800. 
850. 
900. 
950- 



Number of High-school Teachers with 
Salaries — 



Below S500 

$500 to $600. . , 

600 to 700. . , 

700 to 800. . , 

800 to 900. . . 

900 to 1,000. . , 

1,000 to 1,100. . , 

1,100 to 1,200. . . 

1,200 to 1,300. . , 

1,300 to 1,400. . , 

1,400 to 1,500. . , 

1,500 to 1,600. . . 

1,600 to 1,700. . , 

1,700 to 1,800. . , 

1,800 to 1,900. . , 

1,900 to 2,000. . , 

2,oco and abo\x. 



Any adequate study of school organization involves a consider- 
ation of the distribution of children by ages and grades. An age 
grade table, such as is given below in Table 85 is now commonly 
found in school reports. 



26o 



Educational Administration 





o 




< 




>< 




s 








H 








O 








M 




Pi 




w 


00 


g 




Ch 


W 


O 


pq 


H 


■< 


<: 


H 


« 



3 

Q 

< 

O 




l^?Oi 




::::::::::::::: 1 : : : : 


::::::! : : : : 


SHIO 










sXog 








::::::::::::::: : : : : 




Piox 




. : j^^^ 


;;;;;! ; ; ; ; 


SPIO 






: : : : : : : : : 


sXog 






;:;;:!::;; 


:2 

1 


l^?ox 




^^^ 








: : : : : 1 : : : : 


SFIO 






;;;;;;! ;;:; 


sXog 










Flox 




TT] 




:::::: 1 : : : : 


SPIO 




: : ••■••••■::: 1 


sXog 








• • • • . 




^ 
E 


F^OX 












SPIO 






sXcg 


1 ■ ■ • wm 










ti 

1 


f;ox 


1 i;r 






SF!0 




1 : : 


1 .... 


: L 




sXog 


;:l^ 




■i 1 .... 




F^ox 












SPIO 






SiCog 


* _L_' 


1 .... 






1 


Flox 




. . • 








SPIO 








sXog 










IHI^HH 




.1 


Flox 




""Hi • 




• 1 ■ 




SHSO 


1 




sXog 


_^M 






1 

< 




: 

; 






















:::::::::::::: « : : : 








. . . tl aj . 4> 










TS C fli B 




•::::::::::::: o i^ ^ S 


7 years 

8 years 

9 years 

10 years 

11 years 

1 2 years 
I? years 

14 years 

15 years 

1 6 years 

17 years 

18 years 

19 years 

20 years 

T 

Below n( 
Normal 
Above n 



School Records and Reports 



261 



Instead of the reports which give the average daily attendance 
of pupils, we are coming to have reports which tell the whole 
truth about attendance by distributing the number of days at- 
tended as is indicated in Table 86. 



TABLE 86 
Distribution of Attendance 



Time 



Boys 



Per Cent 
Girls of Whole 

Number 



Attending less than lo days. 



a 


10 days 


to 19 


" 


20 " 


29 


" 


30 


39 


" 


40 


49 




SO " 
60 


59 
69 


" 


70 
80 


79 
89 




90 


99 




100 " 


109 




no 


119 




120 


129 




130 


139 


'' 


140 


149 


(( 


150 
160 


IS9 
169 


u 


170 
180 


179 
189 




190 


199 



days. 



Total (equal enrollment for term). 



In like manner tables which give enrollment, promotions and 
non-promotions by grade and by causes, failures by subjects and 
by grades, withdrawals by ages, by grades, and by causes, are 
becoming more and more common in school reports. 

On the side of fiscal statistics, we are beginning to have reports 
which attempt to analyze expenditures in such a way as to show 
the total cost per pupil in various grades or types of schools, the 
cost per pupil for various items, such as instruction, books and 
supplies, fuel, and the like, and in some cases a careful analysis 
and comparison is made of costs among the several units of the 



262 Educational Administration 

school system, as, for example, upon the basis of school buildings 
or plants. 

In the newer type of report, it is common to illustrate with 
charts, diagrams, and pictures. There is an attempt made to tell 
the story in such a way as to interest the reader, as well as to 
convey information to the speciahsts. In some cities definite 
plans are made for publicity through the newspaper, or in some 
cases by issuing partial reports on special subjects of interest 
from time to time throughout the school year. 

Another interesting development in modern reports is the 
appreciation of the fact that it may not be wise to attempt to 
cover every subject with equal completeness each year. It may 
be argued that the best report is the one which specializes upon 
some one aspect of the school problem once in three or once in 
five years. Of course it is necessary, if such a cycle of reports is 
instituted, to give the essential facts each year. If, for example, 
the following cycle were followed, first year, curriculum, including 
special schools and special classes; second year, finance; third year, 
pupils; fourth y^ar, teachers; fifth year, buildings and equip- 
ment, the report would undoubtedly convey certain information 
concerning each of these fields each year. On the other hand, in 
each of the five years the topic which was considered the special 
order for the year, would be treated exhaustively. In so far as 
statistics or reports are valuable for the guidance of those who 
administer our schools, there would be great advantage in the 
adoption of some such plan as indicated above. To have an 
exhaustive treatment of a topic once in five years would be just 
as satisfactory as to have the topic treated with like fullness each 
year. Since space and effort must be economized, there is mani- 
festly a very great advantage in treating in successive years sev- 
eral different topics, and then returning to treat each of these 
topics again after the lapse of a definite period. 

Possibly the most interesting development in recent years is 



School Records and Reports 263 

found in the demand for uniformity in recording and reporting. 
Our state education officers have demanded uniform reports 
within the city. For the most part, these reports have been very 
inadequate, and have been thought of as significant mainly in so 
far as the information derived was used as a basis for determin- 
ing the aid given to the local community from the state. The 
movement for uniformity, which has taken form in the National 
Education Association in the appointment of a special com- 
mittee on uniform records and reports, may be expected in time 
to affect the state officers as well as city school systems. This 
committee has, since its appointment, worked in cooperation with 
the United States Bureau of Education, the Census Office, and 
the Association of School Accounting Officers. These four bodies 
have agreed upon a uniform program. The United States Bureau 
of Education has from time to time modified its schedules in 
accordance with the recommendations of the joint committee. 
The Bureau has also invited state and city superintendents for 
conferences, and has sent out its forms for criticism to city and 
state officers before issuing them in permanent form. It is to be 
expected that from this campaign of education there will come a 
realization of the importance of uniformity as well as greater 
interest in records and reports. 

Hope for more adequate recording and reporting is to be found, 
too, in the increased demand made upon those who would enter 
the profession. Courses in school management and in school 
supervision and administration in normal schools and colleges, 
are to-day sending students into the field with some appreciation 
of statistical method, and with some acquaintance with the best 
practice with respect to records and reports. The movement for 
adequate records and reports is a part of the development of a 
science, as well as of a profession of education. The demand 
upon the part of the public for such adequate information is even 
greater than the demand for efficiency in teaching. 



PART V 
SCHOOL FINANCES 



§ 22. City School Expenditures 

The financial problem in connection with our public schools is 
fundamental. We may devise improved courses of study, we 
may provide for the proper training of teachers, our aim may be 
sound and our method well grounded, and still we must have the 
money to build and properly equip and maintain buildings, to 
provide the necessary books and supplies, to hire the competent 
supervisors and teachers, or all will count for naught. We believe 
that our schools have advanced in this country during the past 
fifty years, and we know that along with this advance the amount 
of money spent for pubhc education has increased in a ratio alto- 
gether out of proportion to the number of people educated. Still 
further, we believe that those sections of our country which 
to-day spend the most money for pubHc education are the sections 
which are doing the best work. Especially with the growth of 
cities and the great increase of urban population has the amount 
of money spent for pubhc schools grown larger. But even the 
great increase in expenditure, amounting in some cases to ten- or 
even twenty-fold during the past fifty years, has not been suffi- 
cient to satisfy the demands of those who beheve in the efficacy 
and necessity of pubhc education in our modern democracy. 

President Ehot, in his address before the Connecticut State 
Teachers' Association in 1902, argued for more liberal expendi- 
tures for pubhc education, in order that we might accomphsh 
by this means certain desirable ends which we have as yet failed 
to attain. He sums up his argument in one part of his address 
as follows: ''My first argument in support of this proposition is 
that, as a nation and on the whole, in spite of many successes, 
we have met with many failures of various sorts in our efforts to 
educate the whole people, and still see before us many unsur- 

267 



268 Educational Administration 

mounted difficulties. It is indisputable that we have experienced 
a profound disappointment in the results thus far obtained from 
a widely diffused popular education. It was a stupendous un- 
dertaking at the start, and the difficulties have increased with 
every generation. Our forefathers expected miracles of prompt 
enhghtenment; and we are seriously dissappointed that popular 
education has not defended us against barbarian vices like drunk- 
enness and gambhng, against increase of crime and insanity, and 
against innumerable delusions, impostors, and follies. We ought 
to spend more pubhc money on schools, because the present 
expenditures do not produce all the good results which were 
expected and may reasonably be aimed at." ^ 

In a second address to the New Hampshire State Teachers' 
Association in the same year. President EKot maintained that 
more money should be given to the public schools, because of 
the great gains that have been made in public education. Some 
of the improvements to which he called attention were the estab- 
lishment of kindergartens, improvement in the curricula of ele- 
mentary schools, increase in the number of high schools, improve- 
ment in school buildings, new kinds of schools (manual training, 
the mechanic arts high school, the evening school, and the vaca- 
tion school), improvement in normal schools, improved methods 
of selecting and appointing teachers, pensions for teachers, in- 
creased employment of educational experts in supervising and 
executive functions of urban school systems, the increased use of 
high schools, the introduction of the costly elective system, better 
university teachers, improved professional training, increased 
opportunity for the higher education of women, and increased 
attention given to the welfare of the body. Every one of these 
educational improvements, says President Eliot, "has been 
costly; but every one has justified itself in the eyes of the tax- 
payers, or of those who voluntarily pay for it; not one would now 

1 Eliot, More Money for the Public Schools, p. 23. 



City School Expenditures 269 

be recalled, and the total result encourages the expectation that 
large new expenditures would commend themselves to the people 
at the start, and in the end would prove to be both profitable in 
the material sense and civilizing in the humane sense. 

''You have doubtless noticed that the gains I have reported 
are chiefly in education above fourteen years of age. There has 
been improvement in the first eight grades since 1870, but it is 
relatively small. Yet the great majority of American children 
do not get beyond the eighth grade. Philanthropists, social 
philosophers, and friends of free institutions, is that the fit educa- 
tional outcome of a century of democracy in an undeveloped 
country of immense natural resources? Leaders and guides of 
the people, is that what you think just and safe? People of the 
United States, is that what you desire and intend?" ^ 

There is nothing unusual nor radical in this appeal of President 
Eliot. In almost every educational journal one can find argu- 
ments for increased expenditures for teachers' salaries. In many 
states laws have been passed or proposed which declare that all 
text-books shall be furnished free to children. In every com- 
munity new school buildings are built better than the old. More 
attention is given to proper heating, lighting, and ventilating. All 
this means an increase in school expenditures. Along with this 
great increase in expenditure and with the demand for still greater 
sums of money for pubHc education, there has arisen the necessity 
for greater abihty in the handling of school moneys, and, on the 
part of the tax-payers who furnish the money, a desire to know 
how the money is spent and what results are obtained. 

Those who have controlled our free public schools have always 
had the double function of attending to the business affairs of the 
school system, as well as looking after the matter of instruction. 
In the early days, when the chief expenditure was for the teacher's 
salary and there were very few other items of expense, it was a 

1 Eliot, More Money for the Public Schools, pp. 125-127. 



270 Educational Administration 

comparatively simple matter to administer the finances of the 
then small schools systems. With the great growth of cities and 
school systemxS, together with the enormous increase in amount 
and variety of expenditures, the problem of business administra- 
tion has become very complex. This demand for expert ability 
in dealing with the business affairs of the schools has been met 
in different ways. In some instances a special committee of the 
school board or committee has been given charge of the financial 
affairs of the schools. In many cases the superintendent has not 
only supervised instruction, but has also been the business mana- 
ger for the school system. In other cases, notably in Cleveland 
and Indianapolis, a special executive officer has been provided 
to look after the business affairs. There is a growing feeling that 
the business affairs of the large school systems demand expert 
abiHty, and that it is financially profitable for a large city to 
employ a business director to look after the financial interests 
of the school system. The Chicago Commission, appointed in 
1898, recommended that the function of the school board "be 
chiefly legislative, the executive work being delegated to the 
superintendent and business manager."^ However desirable it 
may be to have a special executive officer whose duty it shall be 
to look after the business affairs of the schools, the fact remains 
that in vastly the greater majority of cities of over ten thousand 
inhabitants this work is now done by the school board, by the 
superintendent of schools, or by the board and the superintendent 
in cooperation with each other. 

In the year 1899 there reported to the Department of Superin- 
tendence of the National Educational Association the Committee 
on Uniform Financial Reports, which had been appointed at the 
previous meeting. Something of the purpose for which this Com- 
mittee was appointed, as well as their recommendations, may be 
found in the following quotation: 

* Report of the Chicago Educational Commission. 



City School Expenditures 271 

'' While local conditions enter into the necessities for expense in 
any pubHc school system, yet one of the most useful means of 
estimating proper expenditures should be afforded by a study 
of the financial school reports of other similar cities or districts. 
As these reports are at present made, they are of Httle use in this 
respect. Items given in one report are omitted from another. 
Items of income and outgo are differently grouped in different 
reports, and the statement is made in such a way that it is impos- 
sible to separate the items for the purpose of re-classification. In 
getting the cost of education per child, different items are put 
into the total cost of education, which forms the dividend, while 
the divisor is sometimes the number enrolled, sometimes the 
average number in daily membership, sometimes the average 
number in daily attendance. 

''One of the chief studies of a wise administrator of schools is 
to make the cost of education per child as low as is consistent 
with the best service. Attention to this and to the comparative 
study of the reports for a period of years, now that most of our 
school systems are established on a somewhat similar plan, 
should give an idea of the average or normal cost of education 
per child. Having this, the manager of schools may know how 
expense in his system differs from this normal standard and, if 
not normal, why it is above or below. This knowledge cannot 
be arrived at, however, until the same items are included when 
comparing cost of education, and the same divisor is used when 
obtaining the average. By careful comparative study, railroad 
men know the average cost of hauling freight per ton per mile, 
and the cost per mile of transporting a passenger. Those admin- 
istering schools should be as well informed upon the cost of ed- 
ucation."^ 

During the past five years there has been much discussion 
concerning the efficiency of those charged with the control of our 
^Proceedings of the National Educational Association, iSgg, p. $45- 



272 Educational Administration 

municipal activities. There have been investigations of various 
city departments, budget exhibits and surveys. Our schools 
have come in for their share of these investigations. There has 
developed a demand for adequate records and reports, for the 
standardization of supplies and for definite units of cost for vari- 
ous educational activities. 

At the meeting of the department of superintendence of the 
National Education Association in Indianapolis in 1910, a com- 
mittee on uniform records and reports was appointed. This 
committee made its final report at St. Louis in 191 2. Among 
other recommendations, a form for reporting fiscal statistics was 
submitted. This schedule was prepared by the committee of 
the department of superintendence acting in cooperation with 
the United States Bureau of Education, the Census Office, and 
the National Association of School Accounting Officers. Many 
of the more progressive cities have already introduced systems 
of accounting which will make possible a report at least as de- 
tailed as is called for by the form recommended. This schedule 
is sent to all of the larger cities by the Bureau of Education in 
asking for a report of fiscal statistics.^ 

During the years 1 903-1 905 inclusive the writer made an 
investigation of city school expenditures. The data which fur- 
nish the basis of this study were secured from fifty-eight cities of 
between ten and fifty thousand inhabitants, located in Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. 
To the superintendent of schools in each city the following blank, 
form was sent. 

^ This schedule will be found on py). 255-258. 



City School Expenditures 



273 



TEACHERS COLLEGE 

Columbia University 
New York 
Data for research in Educational Administration. School Expenditures for the 
year 190 and 190 , in the city of stxite of 



I. 



Current Expenses: 

I 



No. 



7- 



Salaries for supervision (Superintendent, Assistant, Deputy, 

or Associate Superintendents, and Principals) 

Salaries for business administration (salaries of members of 
the Board of Education, Business Manager, Superinten- 
dent of Buildings and Grounds, Clerks to Board of Edu- 
cation, etc., etc.) 

Salaries of. Janitors (number and aggregate of their 

salaries) ,• • 

Salaries of Matrons or Maids in connection with Kni- 
dergartens and Baths (number and aggregate of 

their salaries) 

Salaries of Truant Officers (number and aggregate of 

their salaries) 

Salaries for Teaching: 

Number of Elementary School (Primary and Gram- 
mar) Teachers and aggregate of their salaries. . . . 
Number of High School Teachers and aggregate of 

their salaries 

Number of Kindergarten Teachers and aggregate of 

their salaries 

Number of Evening School Teachers and aggregate 

of their salaries 

Number of Truant School Teachers and aggregate 

of their salaries 

Number of Teachers' Training School Teachers and 

aggregate of their salaries ■ • 

Number of Special Teachers or supervisors of special 
subjects (Manual Training, Cooking, Sewing, 
Drawing, Music, Nature Study, Penmanship, 
Physical Education, etc.) and aggregate of their 

salaries 

Number of Vacation School and Play Ground 

Teachers and aggregate of their salaries 

What are the daily wages of (i) Carpenters, $ 

(2) Bricklayers, $ (3) Day Laborers, $ 

in your city? 

Text-books, including copy- and drawing-books and re- 
pairs to books 

SuppUes consumed by pupils (paper, pencils, ink, chajk, 
pens and pen-holders, erasers, laboratory, manual train- 
ing, cooking, and kindergarten supplies, etc., etc.). ..... . 

Janitors' Supplies (brooms, brushes, towels and washing of 

towels, toilet paper, soap, etc., etc.) 

Supplies for Board of Education, Superintendents 
Principals' offices 



and 



274 Educational Administration 

TEACHERS COhh'EGY.— continued 



11. Fuel 

12. Light and Power 

13. Water 

14. Ordinary repairs to Buildings and Grounds. 

15. Rent 

16. School Census 

17. Transportation of Pupils 

18. Insurance 

19. Freight and Expressage. 

20. Printing and Advertising 

21. Telegraph, Postage, etc 

22. Telephone 

23. Other Current Expenses: 



Are books furnished free to indigents? to all stu- 
dents? What supplies are furnished free to in- 
digents? 



to all students?. 



II. Plant and Permanent Equipment: 

1. New buildings and sites, furniture and furnishings /or neu 

huildings, and permanent improvements to buildings and 
grounds 

2. Furniture (exclusive of that put in new buildings) 

3. Permanent equipment or apparatus (scientific apparatus 

tools or apparatus for manual training and cooking, type 
writers for commercial departments, maps, charts, globes, 
etc., etc.) 

4. Reference and Library Books 

III. Paid on Principal of Bonded Debt 

IV. Paid on Principal of Loans 

V. Paid for Interest 

VI. All other Expenditures : 

(If important expenditures have been omitted in the above 
classification, will you kindly itemize such expendi- 
tures below.) 



Total Expenditures for the year: 

VII. Bonded School Debt at the end of the year 

VIIL Paid for Evening Schools [total current expenses, included in 

(I) above] 

IX. Paid for Teachers Training School [total current expenses, in- 
cluded in (I) above] 



City School Expenditures 275 

The study based upon the data collected, fifty-eight cities from 
which reports were received the first year and from thirty of the 
same cities for which a second year's report was received is sum- 
marized in the tables and diagrams which follow.^ 

Of the fifty-eight cities reporting the first year, thirty were 
able to report their total expenditure under the classification 
given, without resorting to the use of the ambiguous heading 
"miscellaneous." Of the remaining twenty-eight cities, sixteen 
reported less than 2% under the head "miscellaneous"; ten 
others reported less than 5%; and the remaining cities reported 
5.14% and 6.75% for unclassified expenditures. For the second 
year, of the thirty cities reporting, eighteen report nothing under 
"miscellaneous"; and of the remaining twelve, eight report 1% 
or less, three 2%, and one 3.76% under this head. 

In order to compare the expenditures in the different cities 
with but two years' data, it seemed best to base all comparisons 
upon the cost of maintenance and operation, that is, the expen- 
ditures which are absolutely necessary in order to keep the schools 
going, together with the amount spent for keeping the plant in 
proper repair. Under this head we included furniture put into 
old buildings, that is, new furniture put in to replace old; and also 
money spent for apparatus and for reference and library books. 
These expenditures, we believe, are properly classified as expen- 
ditures for maintenance and operation, since they seldom repre- 
sent any very large increase in permanent equipment. In the 
printed form given above, they were placed under "plant and per- 
manent equipment," because the writer believed that it was 
customary to place them there and that proper returns could be 
most easily secured by classifying them in this way. To have 
taken into consideration the amount spent for new buildings or 
grounds, or for permanent improvements, would have been 

^ The complete original data will be found in Strayer's ''City School Expenditures^' 
published by the Bureau of PubUcations, Teachers College, Columbia University. 



276 Educational Administration 

unfair to some cities, because in some cases a much larger propor- 
tion of such expenditures is met by an issue of bonds than in 
others. The item of interest is not included in the cost of main- 
tenance and operation for a similar reason. This item is some- 
times included in the public school budget, while in other cases 
it is paid by the city. On this point the National Educational 
Association Committee on Uniform Financial Reports says: 

"Expenditures seem to fall into three classes: the usual current 
expenditures necessary for the maintenance of schools; expendi- 
tures for sites, buildings, permanent improvements and equip- 
ment; other expenditures which, for various reasons, are not put 
in either of the two preceding classes. 

"For the purpose of this report the first of these classes is by 
far the most important, for it would probably be conceded that 
from this item of current expense should be determined the cost 
of education per child, the most important item to be shown. "^ 

After having determined the classification to be used, and 
that the total expenditures for maintenance and operation should 
serve as the basis for comparison, the question which next arises 
is, "How shall the separate items be compared as among the 
different cities?" It has been common to compare the expendi- 
tures for different cities on the basis of the cost per pupil in daily 
attendance. We shall use this method, and, in addition, it seems 
well to compare the different items on a slightly different basis, 
namely, the cost per pupil based upon a figure half-way between 
the average daily attendence and the average daily enrollment. 
In discussing this point, the National Educational Association 
Committee on Uniform Financial Reports says: 

"For many reasons No. 39 " (average number in daily member- 
ship, all schools) "seems the most suitable divisor. If computed 
in a uniform manner, the figures showing number in average 
daily membership would most nearly show the requirements for 

1 Report of the National Education Association^ 1899, p. 347. 



City School Expenditures 277 

school rooms, furniture, supplies, and teachers. But it is not true 
that these figures are obtained by the same process, or based upon 
the same facts, in the different school systems. Usage varies 
so in computing membership in different schools — pupils in some 
cases being counted as members of the schools, when in other 
cities the same state of facts would cause the child to be con- 
sidered as no longer a member of the school — that fair compari- 
son is apparently not practicable by the use of this divisor. 

''Your committee is of the opinion that a divisor as little sub- 
ject to misunderstanding as possible, and one based upon facts 
which are obtained in the same way everywhere, is of the first 
importance. The members believe that this is provided by item 
40, average number in daily attendance, all schools, and we have, 
therefore, made that item the divisor to be used, in connection 
with items 12 and 13, to obtain what shall be known as the 'cost 
of education.' "^ 

The school must provide teachers, buildings, and equipment 
for more than the average daily attendance, and yet it is seldom 
that provision is made for a number equal to the average daily 
enrollment. It seems, therefore, that the figure half-way be- 
tween the two is a better figure than either of the others. It was 
impossible to secure the figures for the average daily enrollment 
in some cases, and for this reason the average cost per pupil for 
the first and second year will be based upon the average daily 
attendance, even though we do not believe it is so good a figure 
as the other. 

Still another basis for comparison recommends itself — the 
apportionment of money spent for specific purposes expressed 
in per cents of the total expenditures for maintenance and opera- 
tion. This last classification offers a particularly interesting 
basis for comparison and is entirely free from obscurity. The 
question is simply one of distribution of the money that is spent 
^Report of the National Educational Association, 1899, pp. 349-352. 



278 



Educational Administration 



among the several items of the budget. Just as an individual 
may spend too much for clothes, for food, for books, or for amuse- 
ment, in the same manner it is possible for a city to spend too 
great a proportion of its money for janitors, for fuel, for school 
supplies, or even for supervision. 

TABLE 87 

The average of the amounts spent for each item for two years expressed as per 



cents of the average total expenditure for two years, 
years 1902-03 and 1903-04. 



Thirty cities, for the school 



>» 






.t 




T3 








13 ^ 




\-i 




C 











SI 

60.2 


c 


:2 










S 


1 


|l 


1 


1 




II 


3 

P4 


1 


1 






t— 1 




H 






5 


75-4 


2.2 


6.7 


73-2 


5-2 


7-1 


•9 


6 


71 





4-4 


6.0 


66.7 


6.6 


6.0 


6 


•5 


8 


72 


5 


8.4 


6.0 


64.0 


6.0 


5 ■ 7 


3 


.6 


13 


72 


8 


154 


6.3 


59-4 


5-3 


6.6 


2 


■5 


14 


68 


4 


4-9 


7-4 


634 


5-6 


8.1 


5 


•9 


15 


74 


7 


8.9 


6.3 


65.8 


6.7 


6.2 


2 


.8 


16 


75 


5 


7.6 


6.6 


67.9 


5-6 


6.1 


3 


5 


20 


74 


6 


2.6 


5-3 


72.2 


4.4 


8.6 


3 





27 


68 


I 


12.6 


7.6 


55-9 


7 


3-5 


3 


6 


28 


69 


7 


3-9 


71 


65.8 


3-4 






29 


65 


7 


30 


7-7 


62.8 


6.9 


5-6 


2.1 


30 


70 


5 


2.6 


6.3 


67.8 




4 


6 


8 


3 


31 


64 





2-1 


6.6 


61.2 




II 


2 


7 


8 


32 


65 


4 


10. 1 


6.4 


55-3 


2.8 


6 


3 


7 


I 


34 


68 


6 


4.4 


9.4 


64.2 




6 


8 


3 


3 


35 


76 


7 


3.8 


5-7 


72.9 


•3 


5 


9 


3 


8 


36 


80 


8 


17.2 


3-6 


62.6 


•7 


5 


8 


I 


2 


37 


76 


2 


17.2 


5-2 


59-2 




6 


9 


3 


4 


39 


73 


9 


II. 9 


5-4 


62.1 




6 


5 


4 


I 


40 


68 


I 


II. I 


3-8 


57-0 


6.1 


7 


3 


3 


6 


41 


70 





9.1 


4-5 


60.9 


5-6 


6 


7 


I 


8 


42 


69 


8 


15-7 


5-2 


54-1 


9.1 


5 


I 


3 


I 


43 


72 





3-3 


6.4 


68.7 


S?> 


5 


9 


2 


7 


45 


71 


2 


4-3 


5-5 


66.9 


6.1 


3 


9 


5 


9 


48 


68 


5 


12. 1 


5-7 


57-4 


6.3 


5 


6 


2 


7 


52 


62 


4 


6.1 


6.4 


56.2 


7-3 


3 


6 


9 


8 


54 


65 


4 


II -3 


5-4 


54 -o 


13.2 


4 


8 


3 


5 


55 


69 


2 


4.8 


5.6 


64.4 


5.8 


5 


I 


2 





56 


71 


2 


10.3 


8.3 


60.9 


3-8 


4 


4 


4 


4 


57 


74 


5 


9-7 


51 


.64.8 




3 


9 


4 


2 



City School Expenditures 



279 



TABLE 88 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The number used as a divisor 
is the figure half-way between the average daily attendance and the average daily 
enrollment. Forty-eight cities, for the school year 1902-03. 



I 


34 


18 


21.38 . 


2 


26 


48 


16.69 • 


3 


27 


09 


18.47 I- 


4 


30 


91 


19 -73 3- 


5 


32 


30 


23.70 . 


6 


26 


80 


19.50 I. 


7 


21 


IQ 


12.65 I- 


8 


29 


80 


17.29 4. 


9 


29 


29 


19.50 . 


10 


41 


21 


30.40 . 


II 


27 


90 


13-90 3- 


12 


28 


28 


l8.I2 2. 


13 


28 


53 


15-33 4- 


14 


27 


35 


17.02 I. 


15 


24 


33 


17.20 . 


16 


27 


67 


18.65 2. 


17 


34 


88 


21 .90 2. 


18 


34 


59 


24.39 I. 


19 


27 


78 


17.50 . 


20 


22 


53 


16.13 • 


28 


28 


44 


18.55 I- 


29 


27 


91 


17.20 . 















0. 


rt 




g 




3 





'c 


ifi 


c 


1 


1 


a 
3 

CD 




1 


f2 

•a 
a 


1 


I 




1— 1 


03 

1 


1 


CO 




'5 






1 




99 


■17 


2.26 


14 


1-75 


I -13 


•30 


•03 


1.56 


.16 




88 


.07 




15 


1. 17 


.29 


•13 




4 39 


. 12 


.06 


08 




I. 91 




I 


.66 


•27 




1.27 






33 


. II 


2. 21 


08 


I -05 


.89 


. 22 




1.48 


.07 


.12 


72 


•17 


2.13 


25 


I 


•94 


•05 


.08 


1.97 


.16 




12 




I. 41 




I 


•75 


•05 


•03 


1 . 10 


.07 




68 


. 10 


2.01 


18 


-53 


•79 


.18 




•78 






04 




I. 81 


37 


1.48 


•44 


•05 


. 10 


1-74 


•05 


.10 


82 


■32 


2.19 


i5_ 




1 .96 






2^75 




.16 


70 


.28 


2.44 


19 


-95 


134 


.10 


•17 


1^75 


.08 


.22 


23 


•31 


2.56 
2.14 


31 

07 




I . 


88 




1.70 
1.99 


•17 




58 


.82 




1 .06 






96 


.18 


I .96 


27 


•74 


.81 


.07 




1.88 


•05 


1.6 


37 




1.86 


07 


-85 


.68 


.07 




2.24 


•14 




52 


. 12 


1-47 


04 


-97 


•97 


.06 




1.64 


•07 




16 




1.77 


38 


.80 


.92 






1 .40 






73 


.21 


2.45 


14 


1.02 


1.07 




.01 


2.56 


.28 




55 


.18 


2-35 
1 .90 


08 
04 




2 


.62 




2.23 
2.00 






95 


1.32 


•79 






. II 


48 




1. 16 


15 


•54 


•35 


.04 




2.23 


•03 


.20 


II 


■36 


2.05 


18 


I 


.07 






2.14 


I 


.29 


81 




1-95 


09 


I 


.91 


•32 




I 43 


.01 


.08 



28o 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 88 {Continued) 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The number used as a divisor 
is the figure half-way between the average daily attendance and the average daily 
enrollment. Forty-eight cities, for the school year 1902-03. 

























.s 




















aj 










>» 






tfi 


"0 








M 
rt 




tfl 


D-—- 


Tl tn 


G 

l-l 

1 




fl 
^ 


g 


c 

It 

c 


8 
c 

3 

a 


il 


1" 


1 


G 


Ji 


EC 


Apparatus 

Reference an( 
Library Book 


I 


1.80 


01 


.24 


.70 




• 15 


. 10 


.02 


.10 


• 56 


•14 


•45 ^02 


2 


1.42 


04 


.04 


.90 










.01 




•13 


.07 


3 


I 05 


















1.23 


•14 




4 


1.03 


05 


.02 






•05 


•03 


.01 


.09 




. 10 


.26 


5 


•32 




. 10 


•34 










.01 




. 10 


.16 .08 


6 


1 .06 






.40 


•05 


.04 


.01 


.01 








.19 


7 


1 .40 




.02 


•44 


.18 


• 03 


.09 


.01 






.06 




8 


1 . 12 




•05 


•54 


.18 


.04 


.07 


.02 


•03 




. 12 


•07 •OS 


9 


.04 




.04 












.02 


I 34 






10 


2.18 




•05 


.18 






.10 




.01 








II 


1. 19 


14 




.26 


.26 


•03 


.04 




•OS 


1.89 


•07 




12 


9.9 


06 


.04 


.27 




.04 






.06 








13 


•74 


04 


•03 


.14 


.46 


• 05 


•05 


.01 




• 36 


•13 


.06 .01 


14 


1-93 


03 


.02 


•44 




.09 


•OS 






.16 


. 20 


.10 .05 


15 


.67 


17 


•03 


. 21 




• 03 


•05 


.01 


.01 




.02 


.07 .01 


16 


I . II 




•OS 


.10 


















17 


1-39 




•03 


•35 




.07 


. 12 


.01 


•03 


.08 


. 12 


.24 .07 


18 


■95 


05 




.24 




.04 


.08 


.02 


.02 








19 


1.58 


. 


.06 


•79 




■ 05 


•OS 


.01 


.01 




.16 


•34 


20 


•83 


08 




.07 






•05 




.01 


.21 






28 




13 


. 12 












•05 


• 83 


.22 


•2>?, 


29 ' 


2 


98 


.06 


•34 


•13 


.10 












•33 -I? 



City School Expenditures 



281 



TABLE 88 (Continued) 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The number used as a divisor 
is the figure half-way between the average daily attendance and the average daily 
enrollment. Forty-eight cities, for the school year 1902-03. 



S .2- 



2|§: 



3 




in 








n 




'S 






3 




30 35-41 


23.92 


.96 


26 


2.24 


32 


.6i 


.98 


24 




1-75 


-07 




31 26.82 


15.20 


•76 


27 


1-77 


30 


I . 


50 






3-36 


.09 




32 33 50 


18.52 


1-25 


29 


1.88 


17 


■36 


•63 


13 


•63 


2.19 


•25 




33 24.13 


16.31 


3.08 


34 


1.48 


09 




•17 


04 


•03 


I 20 


.04 




34 35 -20 


22.65 


1-52 


42 


2.82 


55 


.02 


-32 


21 


.14 


3-54 


.08 




35 24.08 


17.55 


-48 


17 


1-57 


17 


.02 




09 


.06 


1-36 


.06 




37 18.55 


10.96 


3-13 


37 


-98 


09 




•38 






I . II 






38 22.68 


14.65 


I .69 




.87 


37 


•05 


.09 


15 


•05 


I . 


25 




39 30.87 


19.24 


3-42 


30 


1. 61 


24 




•54 


24 




2. 


03 




40 33.61 


21.08 


1.36 


43 


1-33 


28 


.58 


1 .40 


II 




2. 


95 


.24 


41 23.77 


15-41 


I .00 


44 


1.09 


02 


I 


•35 


03 


.01 


1-44 


. II 


. 21 


42 28.23 


15-31 


4-39 


32 


1.48 


32 


[.42 


I . II 


16 




I . 


58 


•32 


43 25.14 


16.39 


.89 


16 


1.67 


20 


•47 


•43 


17 


•03 


2.23 


-09 


■15 


44 25.50 


16. 22 


1. 16 


16 


1-54 


22 


•30 




03 


•39 


2.55 


. 12 


. 21 


45 27.14 


18.20 


.61 


05 


1-45 


18 


[.48 


■33 


08 


•05 


1.03 


- 25 




46 39.40 


24.23 


4-47 


29 


1. 81 


20 


[•13 


.68 


37 


.18 


1-55 


•05 


-13 


47 18.33 


12.28 


2.98 
2.06 


66 
23 


1-55 
1.26 


16 

28 


.61 
.90 




51 




2-95 
1.29 


. II 

•05 


.04 


48 2 I . 09 


.29 


05 


.04 


.11 


49 20.93 


13-40 


2.54 


14 


-85 


28 


[.09 


. 21 


14 


.07 


I-I5 




-04 


51 29.83 


19.60 


4.14 


30 


1.63 


20 


•56 


•14 


07 


.02 


1.76 


-03 




53 29.61 


19.82 
35-07 


3-62 
5-64 


21 
67 


2.04 
2.92 






1.44 




.29^ 
•17 




•83 




54 52.75 




2.02 


2.40 


42 


2.61 


.56 




55 19-61 


12.08 


.66 


II 


1.04 


22 


I 


.09 






1.09 


. II 




56 27.12 


14.82 


4.42 


22 


2.28 


08 


-43 


•50 


32 


.46 


1. 18 


.11 




57 51-49 


33-36 


5-11 


96 


2-43 


] 


-35 


2.24 


II 


. II 


2.02 


.22 




58 20.38 


12.83 


1.97 


13 


1 .11 




I 


•32 


26 


•13 


.66 


•05 


.09 



282 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 88 {Continued) 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The number used as a divisor 
is the figure half-way between the average daily attendance and the average daily 
enrollment. Forty-eight cities, for the school year 1902-03. 



>> 








'o 








^ 






S'^ 




















rt 






c. ti 


•T3 t« 




£2 

1 


1 


3 
c 

1 


1 ,/, 


a 
2 

G 




II 


1. 

2 


1 







5 ^"g 


30 


2.61 




.02 








.21 




.11 


•30 


■33 


06 .40 


31 


1.72 


•17 


.10 




.07 


.14 


.14 




.04 


•97 


•34 


1^7 


32 


3.56 




• 13 




.18 


.27 


.27 




.10 


1.26 


•83 


21 .63 


33 


I 13 




.07 




.06 


.06 


.06 


.02 




.02 






34 


•SI 




.19 


.18 


•51 


•43 


•43 




.07 


• 17 


.60 


23 


35 


.67 




.04 




.09 


.16 


.16 


.02 


.06 


•97 


.14 


16 . 21 


37 


•43 








.04 


. II 


. II 






.61 




•32 


38 


2.23 




.05 




.26 


.02 


.14 


.02 




.30 


•05 


18 .28 


39 


I-3I 
1. 17 




.04 




.06 

•49 




•56 




.04 


•43 


.17 


I-3I 


40 


•03 


.68 




•73 


41 


.04 


•43 


•05 


.02 


•17 


•05 


.06 


.04 


•05 


1.22 


.14 


•35 


42 


•79 








•32 


.02 


.08 


.02 


•05 




.32 


16 . 10 


43 


.62 


.04 


.10 


.07 


.01 


.01 


. 12 


.02 


.01 


.70 


.17 


21 . 16 


44 


1.09 


•59 






•31 


•05 


.07 


.01 






•15 


18 .10 


4? 


1.88 








■30 


•03 


•24 




•03 


•65 


.12 


05 ^13 


46 


1 .02 


1.42 




.10 




.07 


. 21 


.04 


.18 


.04 


•55 


22 .24 


47 


2.42 


.12 






■ZZ 




.21 




.06 




■37 


03 .11 


48 


•31 


•51 


.06 




ID 


•03 


•33 


.01 




.68 


.08 


05 .06 


49 


.28 




•05 




.12 


.04 


.02 


.01 




.06 


.19 


19 . 10 


51 


-56 




.02 




.27 


.02 


.06 


.01 


.04 




■03 


23 ^23 


53 


.96 




















•41 




54 


2.21 






.24 


•42 


.19 


.24 


■03 


.19 


.64 


.24 I 


17 .19 


55 


•55 


















1.92 


•27 


27 .22 


56 


1-45 








•15 




.08 




.06 


.24 


.16 


05 •10 


H 


2.24 








.11 


. II 


.14 


.07 






•45 


22 .22 


38 


1.06 


.22 






.03 




.03 




•05 






03 .40 



City School Expenditures 



283 



TABLE 89 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The average number of pupils 
in daily attendance is used as the divisor. Fifty-seven cities, for the school year 
1902-03. 



9: 5. 



1 


i3 



IS 


.2 

'E 


1 






5 



c 


1 


= 




0. 
"e2 


"0 =5 3 




1 




rt 

^ 


3 


H 


^ 




t— , 


2 


H 


m 





It 




to 




iz; 










H 






t— , 






^ 




I 35-64 


22.30 


1.03 


.18 


2.35 


14 


1.83 


1. 18 


•31 


.04 


1-63 


• 17 




2 28 


CO 


I 7 . 60 


-93 


.07 




16 


1.24 


•31 


•14 




4.70 


• 13 


.07 


3 28 


06 


19. 10 


1 . 12 




1.98 




I 


.72 


.28 




1.32 






4 31 


90 


20.35 


3-44 


. II 


2 


27 


08 


1.08 


■92 


. 22 




1-53 


.07 


. 12 


5 3>2> 


27 


24.41 


■74 


.18 


2 


19 


26 


I 


•99 


.06 


.08 


2.03 


.16 




6 27 


65 


20. 10 


I-15 




I 


45 




I 


.81 


•05 


•03 


1. 14 


.07 




7 21 


61 


12.91 


I. 71 


. II 


2 


05 


18 


•54 


.81 


.18 




.80 






8 31 


16 


18.10 


4 23 




I 


89 


39 


155 


.46 


•05 


. 10 


1.82 


•05 


. 10 


9 31 


01 


20.63 


.86 


■2>d> 


2 


32 


15 




2.08 






2.91 




•17 


10 43 


23 


31-91 


-73 


• 29 


2 


56 


20 


•99 


1-39 


. 12 


.18 


1.84 


. II 


•23 


II 29 


01 


14.42 


3-35 


• 32 


2 


65 


32 




I 


.94 




1-77 


.18 




12 29 


20 


18.75 


2.60 




2 


21 


07 


•85 




1.09 




2.05 






13 29 


56 


15.90 


5-14 


.19 




03 


28 


•77 


•83 


.07 




1-95 


• 05 


.16 


14 28 


75 


17.89 


1-44 






95 


07 


•89 




71 


.08 




2. 


50 




15 25 


35 


17.91 


•55 


. 12 




53 


04 


1 .01 


I 


01 


.07 




I. 71 


.07 




16 28 


41 


19.17 


2. 22 






82 


39 


.82 




94 






1.44 




■i?, 


17 36 


GO 


22.60 


2.82 


. 22 




53 


14 


1.05 


I 


II 




.01 


2.64 


• 29 




18 35 


70 
90 


25-17 
18.16 


1.60 
.98 


.19 




43 
97 


o8_ 
04 






2 


71 




2.30 
2.08 






19 28 


137 




82 






. II 


20 23 


16 


16.58 


•49 






19 


15 


•55 




36 


.04 




2.29 


• 03 


. 21 


21 24 


50 


16.90 


3.08 


•05 




44 


05 






38 


.09 


•05 


•94 


-05 


.04 


22 8 


94 


6.63 


. II 






Z1 








53 


•13 


.02 


•37 


-03 




23 12 


85 


3-69 


3-78 


.08 




92 


08 












1.27 




.08 


24 15 


26 


9-87 


1. 41 


•23 




96 




.10 




22 


.01 


.01 


1.03 


.07 


.14 


25 31 


00 


21.67 


2-45 






53 




.11 




II 


•03 


•05 


2.04 


.04 


■^S 


26 32 


67 


18.37 


5-47 


.19 




92 


03 


.66 


•99 


.04 


•03 


1-45 


•05 


.18 


27 26 


96 


15. II 


2.82 






95 




1.64 




•48 




1-25 




. 12 


28 30 


30 
50 


19.77 
18.21 


1. 19 
.36 


•39 


2 
2 


19 
06 


20 
09 


I . 

2. 


14 

DI 


•^^ 




2.28 


I 


•38 


29 29 


.01 


.08 



284 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 89 (Conlinned) 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The average number of pupils 
in daily attendance is used as the divisor. Fifty-seven cities, for the school year 
1902-03. 



u 


1 

B 

3 


I 
Pi 


c 


3 
a 
U 

1 


c 


It 

G 

2 
H 


c 

2 
3 
c 


-0 (U 

c to 


1,^ 

11 




1 
1 


3 
lA 


la 

11 
. 3 


Apparatus 

Reference and 
Library Books 


I 


1.88 


01 


• 25 


•73 




.16 


.11 


.02 


10 


.16 


56 


.47 -02 


2 


1.50 


05 


• 05 


•83 










01 




14 


.07 


3 


1.09 


















1.28 


15 




4 


1.06 


05 


.02 






•05 


.04 


.01 


09 




II 


•27 


5 


•33 




.11 


•34 










01 




II 


.16 .08 


6 


1,09 






.41 




•05 


.04 


.01 


01 






.19 


7 


1-43 




.02 


•45 


.19 


•03 


. II 


.01 






06 




8 


1. 17 




.05 


•56 


.19 


.04 


.08 


•03 


03 




13 


.08 .05 


9 


•05 




•05 












03 


1.42 






10 


2.29 




•05 


.19 






.10 




01 








II 


1.24 


14 




.26 


.26 


.04 


.04 


.01 


05 


1.96 


07 




12 


1.03 


07 


.04 


.28 




.04 






06 








13 


■77 


04 


•03 


.14 


.48 


•05 


•05 


.01 




•37 


14 


.06 .01 


14 


2 02 


03 


• 03 


.46 




. ID 


■05 






• 17 


21 


.10 .05 


15 


.69 


17 


• 03 


.22 




•03 


.06 


.01 


01 




02 


.07 .OI 


16 


1. 14 




•05 


.10 


















17 


1-43 




• 03 


•36 




.07 


. 12 


.01 


02 


.08 


12 


.25 -07 


18 


.98 




•05 


•25 




.04 


.08 


.02 


02 








19 
20 


1.64 
.85 


09 


.07 


.82 
.07 




05 


•05 
•05 


.01 


01 
01 


.22 


16 


•35 


21 


•94 








• 14 


.02 


.01 


.01 


01 




19 


.07 


22 


•59 


01 


.02 






.01 


.06 










.08 


23 


.90 




.06 


•03 


.40 








01 




19 


.08 .26 


24 


•45 




• 03 




32 




•05 


.01 


02 


.19 




•13 


25 


i^83 




.08 




• 25 


.01 


•25 


.01 


14 






.05 .11 


26 


1 .12 


19 


. 10 


•03 


■44 


•03 


. ID 


02 


01 






17 I. OS 


27 


•63 


54 


. 10 




•03 




.oS 






1. 18 


24 


44 ^27 


28 




14 
15 


■ 13 
.07 


■36 




.14 


.11 




05 


.89 


23 


■35 


29 


3 


•35 •iS 



City School Expenditures 



28s 



TABLE 89 (Contimied) 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The average number of pupils 
in daily attendance is used as the div^isor. Fifty-seven cities, for the school year 
1902-03. 



^ S"^ 



30 37.32 25.25 I. 01 .27 2.36 .34 .64 1.04 



26 



1.85 .07 



31 27.90 

32 34-49 

33 24.85 

34 35 96 

35 24.52 

36 31-94 

37 19-26 

38 23.56 

39 32 01 

40 34-79 



^.65 
>S.sO 



41 
42 

43 26 09 

44 26.18 

45 28.53 

46 41.52 

47 20.71 

48 22 75 

49 22.20 

51 32.05 

52 26.39 

53 30 61 

54 54-72 

55 20.50 

56 28.01 



57 51-25 

58 21.51 13.5 



15-75 




79 - 


19.07 
16.78 


I 
3 


29 . 
18 . 


23-15 
17.87 


I 


56 . 
49 • 


18.88 


5 


54 • 


11.40 3 


25 - 


15.21 


I 


75 


19.94 


3 


55 - 


21 .90 


I 


42 . 


15-99 


I 


03 • 


15-47 


4 


43 - 


17 .00 
16.69 
19.14 


I 


92 . 
19 . 
64 . 


25-53 


4 


71 - 


5-7« 


3 


37 - 


13-29 
14. 20 


2 


23 • 
69 . 


21.05 


4 


45 ■ 


13 -Si 


I 


75 - 


20.49 


3 


74 ■ 


30 . 60 
12.61 


5 


87 - 
69 . 


15-33 


4 


56 . 


33 - 20 
13-55 


5 


09 
08 . 



1. 84 

1-93 
1-52 
2.92 
1 .60 



25 I . II 

39 I- 01 

.91 

31 1.67 
44 1-38 

46 I. 13 

32 1.49 
17 1-73 
16 1.58 

05 1-53 

31 I. 91 
75 1-75 
25 1-36 
15 .89 

32 1-76 

19 1.84 
21 2. II 



3-05 
1 .09 



22 2.3: 



96 2.42 
14 I. 17 



32 

17 
09 

56 .02 
18 .02 



1.56 
37 64 



-05 
.60 



07 





3-49 -09 


.64 


2.25 .25 


-03 


I . 24 .04 


.09 


3.61 .08 


.06 


1-39 -07 


.02 


1.66 .22 




I-I5 


•05 


1.30 




2. II 




3-06 



02 




I 


.40 


.04 


.01 


32 


I 


•43 


1 . 12 


.16 




21 




-49 


-45 


.18 


-03 


23 




-31 




-03 


.40 


19 


I 


- 55 


-35 


.08 


-05 


21 


I 


.19 


■72 


39 


.19 


18 




.69 
-97 




•57 




30 


-31 


•05 


.04 


30 


I 


-15 


. 22 


•15 


.08 


21 




-59 


-15 


•15 


.02 


16 




•79 


.92 
1-49 


.16 


.12 
.29 




2 


. II 


2.50 


•43 


.18 


23 




I 


.14 






08 




-45 


-52 


■33 


•47 




I 


-34 


2.23 


. II 


. II 






I 


39 


.28 


•14 



25 

1.49 .12 .22 

1-59 -32 

2.31 .10 .15 
2.62 .13 .21 
I . 08 .26 



1.63 .05 .14 

3.34 .12 .04 

1.39 .05 .12 

1.22 04 

I . 79 .04 

I -19 

-85 

2.72 .58 

I . 14 .II 

1.22 .II 



2.01 
•69 



, 22 
06 .10 



286 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 89 (Continued) 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The average number of pupils 
in daily attendance is used as the divisor. Fifty-seven cities, for the school year 
1902-03. 



e 


(S 




1 


d 


3 






a 


1 


11 




.\pparat 

Reference 
Library Be 


30 


2.75 




.02 






•31 


.22 




. 12 




•34 


.07 .42 


31 


1.79 


. 10 


. II 




.08 




■15 




.04 


I .01 


•35 


.18 


32 


3-67 




•13 




.18 


.06 


.27 




. 10 


1.29 


.86 


•21 .65 


33 


1. 17 




.07 




.06 


.01 


.06 


•03 




.02 






34 


•52 




.19 


.18 


• 52 




•44 




.07 


•17 


.61 


•23 


35 


.68 




.04 




.09 


.02 


.16 


.02 


.06 


■99 


■14 


.16 .21 


36 


.72 




. ID 




■ 33 


.06 


.02 


.02 


.08 


1-57 


•41 


.19 .27 


37 


•45 








.04 




. II 






■63 




■33 


38 


2.32 




•05 




.27 


.02 


.14 


.02 




•31 


•05 


.18 .29 


39 


1.36 
1 .21 




•05 




.06 
• 51 




•59 




.04 


•45 


.18 


1-36 


40 


• 03 


.70 




.76 


41 


.04 


•45 


.06 


•03 


• 17 


•05 


.06 


.04 


•05 


1.27 


•15 


•36 


42 


.80 








■ 32 


.02 


.08 


.02 


•05 




•32 


.10 .10 


43 


•65 


.04 


. II 


.07 


.01 


.01 


•13 


.02 


.01 


.69 


•17 


.22 .17 


44 


1 . 12 


.60 






■ 32 


• 05 


.07 


.01 






•15 


.18 .10 


45 


1.98 








•32 


.04 


•25 




•03 


.68 


•13 


.05 .14 


46 


1.07 


1.49 




.11 




.08 


. 22 


.04 


.19 


.04 


•58 


•23 -25 


47 


2.03 


.14 






■ 37 




•23 




.07 




.42 


•04 -13 


48 


■34 


•56 


.06 




. II 


.04 


■36 


.01 




•73 


.08 


.05 .06 


49 


.29 




•05 




• 13 


.04 


■03 


.01 




.06 


. 20 


.20 .11 


51 


•59 




.02 




.29 


.02 


.06 


.01 


•05 




•03 


•25 ^25 


52 


395 








•31 


.18 


.21 




•03 


•47 




.26 .05 


53 


1. 00 




















.42 




54 


2.30 






.25 


•43 


. 20 


•25 


.04 


.20 


.66 


■25 


I. 21 .20 


55 


•57 


















2.01 


•29 


•29 .23 


56 


1.50 








.16 




.08 




.07 


.25 


•17 


.06 .11 


57 


2.23 








.11 


.11 


•13 


.07 






•45 


.22 .22 


58 


1. 12 


.24 






.03 




•03 




.06 






.03 .42 



City School Expenditures 



287 



TABLE 90 

The cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. The average number of pupils 
in daily attendance is used as the divisor. Thirty of the cities which reported in 
1902-03 reporting for the year 1903-04. 



>, 










S 


■a 






u 




1§ 


bO 


§ 


S 


c 






1 


I 


11 


1 


".3 


m 


14 


1 


i2 

1 


3 




-:n 




C/2 


1 
1— » 


^ 






5 


34.08 


25-51 


24.77 


-74 


2.31 


1.29 


2.75 


•33 


6 


24.26 


15.80 


14.66 


1. 14 


I. 61 


1-63 


1. 91 


2.18 


8 


32-36 


23-65 


22.58 


1.07 


1.86 


1.83 


1.78 


1 .12 


13 


34.21 


25-52 


20.91 


4.61 


1-94 


1.82 


2.25 


.82 


14 


28.79 


19.96 


18.58 


1-38 


2.28 


1.63 




1-36 


15 


24.65 


18.71 


14.88 


3-83 


1-57 


1.36 


1.44 


•69 


16 


28.18 


21.32 


19.23 


2.09 


1.90 


I-5I 


1-99 


.82 


20 


23.06 


17.40 


16. 71 


.69 


1.26 


1 . 21 


1.94 


■55 


27 


26.25 


18.23 


14-57 


367 


2.07 


1.62 


-58 


-97 


28 


29.38 
24.72 


20.63 
15-54 


19.50 
15-78 


I -13 
•76 


2.08 
2.08 


.87 
1.97 


3 


94 


29 


1-49 


1.26 


30 


38.70 


26.99 


26.00 


•99 


2.42 




1.67 


3-57 


31 


30.92 


21.17 


20.37 


.80 


2.04 




2,-^2 


2.82 


32 


28.00 


20. II 


15-52 


4-59 


2.04 


.78 


1 .69 


1 .02 


34 


31-54 


21.62 


20.23 


1-39 


3-37 




I-I3 


1. 61 


35 


29-93 


23.40 


21-75 


1-65 


I 43 


.14 


1 .90 


1-47 


36 


31.70 


26.49 


21 . 20 


5-29 


1. 16 




2.04 


.04 


37 


20.71 


15-76 


12.15 


3-61 


1.08 




1.63 


•94 


39 


28.78 


21 .46 


17.80 


3.66 


1^59 






I-I5 


40 


31-14 


21-35 


15-72 


5.63 


1. 14 


2.03 




1. 17 


41 


25-34 


17-94 


14-37 


3-57 


I -15 


1 .40 


1. 86 


.91 


42 


29.09 


20.32 


15-72 


4.60 


1.50 


2.68 


1.38 


.98 


43 


30-49 


22.94 


22. CI 


•93 


1.92 


.92 


■94 


•89 


45 


29.07 


21 . 22 


19.38 


1.84 


1.67 


1. 61 


1. 18 


1.47 


48 


27.72 


19.66 


15-67 


3-99 


I-5I 


1.97 


1. 41 


1.07 


52 


29.02 


19.08 


17-45 


1-63 


2.30 


2. II 


1.09 


1-37 


54 


48.22 


30.98 


25 - 20 


5-78 


2.56 


8.70 




1-36 


55 


17.91 


13 -^9 


12.07 


1 . 12 


1.06 


1.09 


.84 


. 22 


56 


30-93 


22. 22 


20.85 


1-37 


2.58 


1.30 


1.36 


1 . 12 


57 


52.48 


39 • 10 


34-07 


5-03 


2-94 


3.22 


2.07 


2.18 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 91 



The average cost per pupil for two school years, 1002-03 and 1903-04. This 
table is derived from Tables 89 and 90 which are based on the average number of 
pupils in daily attendance. Thirty cities. 



>! 










_<u 


'O 






u 




1§ 


bo 


c 




M 


". 






1 


1 


^1 


a 

IS 
u 


.2 
t 




15. 2i 


a.! 

3 


I 


3 




&^ 


H 


3 
in 


'S 








^ 








*—> 


H 






5 


33 67 


25-33 


24-59 


•74 


2.25 


I .64 


2.39 


-33 


6 


25-95 


18.52 


17-38 


1. 14 


I 53 


1.72 


1.52 


1.63 


8 


31.76 


22.99 


20.34 


2-65 


1.87 


1.92 


1.80 


1. 14 


13 


31.88 


23.28 


18.40 


4.88 


1.98 


I. 71 


2.10 


-79 


14 


28.77 


19.64 


18.23 


1. 41 


2. II 


1.62 


2.48 


1.69 


15 


25.00 


18.58 


16.39 


2.19 


1^55 


1.69 


1-57 


.69 


16 


28.39 


21.35 


19.20 


2.15 


1.86 


1.63 


I. 71 


.98 


20 


23.11 


17-23 


16.64 


■59 


1 . 22 


I .06 


2.12 


.70 


27 


26.10 


18.08 


14.84 


3 - 25 


2.01 


1.63 


.91 


•85 


28 


29.84 


20.79 


19.63 


1. 16 


2.13 


I .00 






29 


27.11 


17.80 


16.99 


.81 


2.07 


1-99 


1.50 


1.26 


30 


38.01 


26.62 


25.62 


1 .00 


2-39 




1.76 


3.16 


31 


29.41 


18.85 


18.06 


•79 


1 .94 




3-30 


2.30 


32 


31-24 


20.23 


17.29 


2-94 


1.98 


.89 


1.97 


2.34 


34 


33-75 


25.16 


21 .69 


1-47 


3.14 




2.37 


1.06 


35 


27.22 


20.88 


19.81 


1.07 


1.51 




1. 14 


1.07 


36 


31.82 


25-45 


20.04 


5-41 


I.I3 




1.85 


•38 


37 


19.98 


15.20 


11.77 


3-43 


1.04 




1-39 


.69 


39 


30.39 


22.47 


18.87 


3-60 


1.63 




1-99 


1.25 


40 


32.96 


22.33 


18.81 


3-52 


1.26 


2.03 


2.45 


1. 19 


41 


24.99 


17.48 


15.18 


2.30 


1. 14 


1.40 


1.67 


•47 


42 


28.79 


17.09 


15-58 


4-51 


1.49 


2.61 


1-45 


.89 


43 


28.29 


20.42 


19-50 


-92 


1.82 


-93 


1.62 


•77 


45 


28.80 


20.50 


19. 26 


1.24 


1 .60 


1-75 


I -13 


1.72 


48 


25.26 


17-59 


14.48 


3-II 


1-43 


1.62 


1 .40 


.70 


52 


27.70 


17.32 


15-63 


1 .69 


2.07 


1. 91 


1 .00 


2.66 


54 


51-47 


33-72 


27.90 


5-82 


2.86 


6.15 


2.32 


i^83 


55 


19. 20 


13.24 


12.34 


.90 


1.07 


1 . 11 


■99 


•39 


56 


29.47 


21 .05 


18.09 


2.96 


2.46 


1. 13 


1.29 


I-3I 


57 


51.86 


38.69 


33-63 


5-o6 


2.68 


3-39 


2.04 


2.20 



City School Expenditures 289 

Table 87 is derived by finding the average for two years. Thus, 
for city number five, for the first year, teaching and supervision 
amounted to 75.9 per cent of the total, for the same city for the 
second year this item was 74.9 per cent of the total; the average 
of the two, 75.4 per cent, gives the first figure of Table 87. In 
like manner, janitors' salaries, for the first and second years 
respectively, for city number five amount to 6.6 and 6.8 per cent. 
This gives us our figure, 6.7 per cent, for janitors' salaries for city 
number five in Table 87 (see Table 87, first line, column three). 

Table 88 gives the cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. 
The number used as a divisor here is the figure half-way between 
the average number of pupils in daily attendance and the average 
daily enrollment, or average number belonging, as it is sometimes 
expressed. As stated elsewhere in the text, it is my opinion that 
this is a better figure than either average daily attendance or 
average daily enrollment. The only reason that this basis is not 
used throughout the study is because the figures for average daily 
enrollment could not be secured for a number of the cities. In 
the section giving coefficients of correlation will be found a num- 
ber of coefficients which were worked out on this basis from this 
table. This table gives data for forty-eight cities for the school 
year 1 902-1 903. The first line reads as follows: City number 
one spent $34.18 per pupil for the maintenance and operation 
of schools, of which $21.38 per pupil was spent for teaching, $0.99 
per pupil for supervision, $0.17 per pupil for clerk, $2.26 per pupil 
for janitors' salaries, etc. 

Table 89 gives the cost per pupil expressed in dollars and cents. 
The average number of pupils in daily attendance is used as the 
divisor in this case. The first line reads as follows: City number 
one spent $35.64 per pupil for the maintenance and operation of 
schools, of which $22.30 per pupil was spent for teaching, $1.03 
per pupil for supervision, etc. This table gives data for fifty- 
seven cities for the school year 1902- 1903. 



290 Educational Administration 

Table 90 gives the same information as Table 89, calculated on 
the same basis for thirty of these cities for the school year 1903- 
1904. This table is read the same as Table 89. 

Table 91 gives the average cost per pupil for thirty cities for 
two years, the school years 1902- 1903 and 1903- 1904, for the 
principal items of expense. This table is derived from Tables 89 
and 90, which are based on the average number of pupils in 
daily attendance. The first line reads as follows: In city number 
five the average for two years of the cost per pupil for mainte- 
nance and operation of schools was $33.67 (190 2- 1903, $33.27; 
and 1903-1904, $34.08); for teaching and supervision the average 
was $25.33; for teaching alone, $24.59, etc. 

Throughout the tables a number written across the space be- 
tween the columns indicates that this number applies to the two 
adjoining columns taken together, and similarly an underscore 
running across three or more columns indicates that the number 
applies to these columns collectively. 

Variability 

In the tables given above, which compare the different items 
of the school budget on a common basis, the most striking thing 
to be noticed is the variability which exists among the cities. It 
is the purpose of this section to consider somewhat minutely the 
problem of variability in connection with the apportionment of 
school moneys among the several items of the budget. It may 
not be out of place here to call attention to the ambiguity if not 
the positive misrepresentation of facts which results when, as in 
most cases where such data have been collected, the average alone 
is given to represent the facts. Of course, if one accepts the 
average as meaning simply that the sum of all the cases is divided 
by their number, no harm is done; but if one takes the average as 
indicative of the general tendency or as a measure applicable to 



City School Expenditures 291 

the majority of the cases, he may be most completely deluded. 
The average expenditure per pupil for cities Nos. 22, 23, 54, and 
57 for the first year (see Table 89) is $31.94. They spent $8.94, 
$12.85, $54-72, and $51.25 respectively per pupil. The average 
in this case does not correctly represent the group nor any partic- 
ular city within the group. The thing that interests us in the 
measurement of any trait in a group is the range or limits within 
which all of the cases lie, and the grouping of the cases within 
these limits. 

If we consider the facts found in the tables already given we 
find that cities differ greatly not only in the amount per pupil 
which they spend for the maintenance and operation of their 
schools, but also that even where cities spend about the same 
amount per child, the distribution of this money among the sev- 
eral items of the budget is very different. Again, when we con- 
sider simply the distribution of the money that is spent, regardless 
of the amount, as is done in the table which gives the per cent 
which each item is of the total cost of maintenance and operation, 
we find that there is the greatest variability in practice. One 
city spends 44% of the cost for maintenance and operation 
for teaching and supervision, while another spends 82% for the 
same purposes; the janitor receives from 3% to 14% of the 
money used to run the schools; supervision costs one city 1% 
and another city 17% of the whole amount spent; salaries 
for teaching vary from 27% to 73% of the budget. It would 
seem impossible that the money is properly distributed in every 
case when we consider this remarkable variabiHty in practice. 

The undistributed expenditure reported under the head '^ Mis- 
cellaneous" needs to be considered in any argument concerning 
the variability in any item as reported by several cities. It is 
possible that a very large part of the amount thus reported 
properly belongs to some one of the items for which a report has 
been made. It may be that the item teaching, supervision, fuel, 



292 Educational Administration 

janitors' salaries, repairs, or some other would be greatly increased 
if the report had properly distributed the money. It was to 
guard against any such obscurity that the attempt was made in 
this study to secure a complete distribution of expenditures in 
the cities from which information was received, and, as has been 
noted above, this attempt was to a remarkable degree successful. 
Thirty cities out of fifty-eight for the first year report nothing 
under this head; sixteen reported less than 2%, ten others less 
than 5%, and the two remaining reported 5.14% and 6.75%, 
respectively, as unclassified expenditures. For the second year, 
of thirty cities reporting, eighteen report nothing under "Miscel- 
laneous"; and of the remaining twelve, eight report 1% or less; 
three, 2%; and one, 3.76% under this head. It is quite evident, 
I believe, that the miscellaneous item is so small, even where it 
occurs, that it may not be used as an explanation of the varia- 
bihty which occurs in all items of expenditure; and I feel that 
it is safe to say that the accurate distributions of the amounts re- 
ported under this head would not alter the conclusions reached 
in this paper. 

It might be argued that the great variability is due to the fact 
that the cities for w^hich data are given are not comparable, that 
one has at its command a much larger amount of money in pro- 
portion to the number of children to be educated than another, 
and hence the variability. It is true that rightly or wrongly som.e 
of these cities are much better provided with money than others, 
but that does not seem to be the cause of the great variabihty in 
the apportionment of the money which they do have. Take, 
for example, cities Nos. 3, 6, 19, 21, 44, and 56. From the infor- 
mation given in Tables 89 and from the data concerning attend- 
ance, Table 92 may be built up: 



City School Expenditures 



293 



TABLE 92 



No. of 


Total 


No. of Pupils in 


Cost 


City 


Expense 


Daily Attendance 


Per Pupil 


3 


$52,708 




1,876 


$28.06 


6 


50,613 




1,826 


27.65 


19 


52,870 




1,831 


28.90 


21 


52,178 




2,127 


24.50 


44 


48,410 




1,850 


26.18 


56 


50,192 




1,794 


28.01 


Per cent spent 


for each item: 






No. of 








Text-books 


City Teaching 


Supervision 


Janitors 


Fuel 


and Supplies Repaii 


3 68.2 


4- 


71 


4-7 


6.1 3.9 


6 72.9 


4.2 


5-3 


6.1 


6.6 4- 


19 62.9 


3-4 


6.8 


7.2 


7-5 5-7 


21 69.1 


12.6 


5-9 


3-8 


1-5 3-8 


44 63.8 


4-6 


6.1 


10. 


1.2 4.3 


56 54-6 


16.3 


8.4 


4.4 


3-4 5-3 



The variation found cannot be due in these cases to a large 
undistributed amount, for five of these cities distributed their 
expenditures in the special reports received from them according 
to the classification given, without finding it necessary to report 
anything under the head ''Miscellaneous," and the other (No. 56) 
reports only nine-tenths of 1% under this head. 

In these cities the amount of money available and the number 
of pupils to be provided for do not differ very much. We might 
expect that if there were any principle which controlled the 
apportionment of money, or if the money were apportioned in 
the best way, the proportion of the whole cost of maintenance and 
operation spent for any of the principal items would be approxi- 
mately the same in these cities. By glancing at the table, how- 
ever, we see here the same marked variabihty which is found 
when the whole number of cities is considered. Not that there is 
quite so great a range, which would be very unusual because of 
the limited number of cases, but that the distribution of money 
among the several it-ems seems not to bd determined by any 
common principle. 



294 Educational Administration 

It seems strange that of two cities (No. 6 and No. 56) which 
spend respectively $50,613 for 1826 pupils and $50,192 for 1794 
pupils, one should spend 72.9% of its money for teaching while 
the other spends 54.6% for the same purpose. Of course, if we 
combine the items of teaching and supervision, they do not differ 
so much (77.1% and 70.9%), but if this combination of items is 
made throughout for the cities of this table, we have a variation 
in the proportion spent for teaching and supervision of from 
66.3% to 81.7% of the total (see Nos. 19 and 21). For the other 
items in these cities in which the conditions seem to be so much 
alike, the table shows the same variability. Janitors' salaries 
vary from 5.3% to 8.4%; fuel, from 3.8% to 10% (in cities which 
spend respectively $24.50 and $26.18 per pupil); text-books and 
supplies, from 1.2% to 7.5%; and repairs from 3.8% to 5.7% 
of the total. 

It is, indeed, strange if 44% of the cost of maintenance and 
operation can in one city provide for proper teaching and super- 
vision, that in another city, which spends more per pupil, it re- 
quires 82% of the total for this item. It would seem that owing 
to tradition, to poor business management, or to some other 
more invidious cause, the money spent is not always spent to the 
best advantage. It seems possible, also, that the superintendent 
whose attention is called to the wide variation in any one item 
of his budget, might be led to investigate the matter, in order 
to determine whether there is any good reason for such deviation 
from the ordinary or normal condition of affairs. 

A more careful study of the variability of the several items 
of the budget shows that in many cases a large expenditure for 
one item is accompanied by a small expenditure for another. 
Again, in other cases large expenditures in one item seem to 
be accompanied by large expenditures in others and small expend- 
itures in some by small expenditures in others. One has but to 
examine carefully the tables to have suggested the possibility of 



City School Expenditures 295 

significant relationships. In another section I shall consider this 
matter more fully and measure a number of these relationships 
exactly by means of the Pearson Coefhcient of Correlation. 

There are three ways in which we shall express the variability 
in order to get as clear an idea as is possible of the lack of uni- 
formity and in order to suggest the problems which arise because 
of this variability. 

From the tables already given it is possible for us to make out 
frequency tables like those which follow. In these tables the 
first column gives the amount of money spent, or the per cent of 
the total which the item is, and the second column gives the 
number of instances w^here this is true. They give all the facts 
concerning variability; not only the range or limits within which 
all of the cases lie, but also the exact placing of every case. 

Explanation of Tables 

Table 93 gives information for the cities reporting for the 
school year 1902-1903. 

Table A reads as follows: one city spends 27% for teaching; 
one, 49%; one, 52%; one, 53%; two, 54%, etc. 

Table B reads as follows; two cities spend 1% for supervision; 
eleven spend, 2%; seven, 3%, etc. 

Reading the first lines of Tables C and D we find that four 
cities spent 3% of the budget for janitors' salaries, and that six 
cities spent 3% for fuel. 



296 Educational Administration 

TABLE 93 
Tables of Frequency 
The per cent of the total expenditure for maintenance and operation which is 
spent for teaching, supervision, janitors' salaries, and fuel. Fifty-eight cities, re- 
porting for the school year 1902-03. 



A 




B 


c 


D 


Teach: 


ing 


Supervision 


Janitors' Salaries 


Fuel 


Per Cent Fi 


L-equency 


Per Cent Frequency 


Per Cent Frequency 


Per Cent Frequency 


27 


I 


I 2 


3 4 


3 6 


28 


I 


2 II 


4 6 


4 12 


29 





3 7 


5 15 


5 10 


30 





4 6 


6 19 


6 II 


31 





5 I 


7 7 


7 4 


32 





6 


8 3 


8 3 


^5 





7 5 


9 2 


9 3 


34 





8 


10 


10 2 


35 





9 5 


II 


II 


36 





10 3 


12 


12 I 


37 





II 4 


13 


13 


38 





12 3 


14 I 


14 


39 





13 2 




15 


40 





14 




16 2 


41 





15 I 






42 





16 4 






43 





17 2 






44 











45 











46 











47 











48 











49 


I 








50 











51 











52 


I 








53 


I 








54 


2 








55 


2 








56 


3 








57 











58 


3 








59 


2 








60 











61 


3 








62 


6 








63 


6 








64 


6 








65 


3 








66 


2 








67 


3 








68 


2 








69 


2 








70 


I 








71 


2 








72 


T 








73 


4 









City School Expenditures 



297 



TABLE 94 
Tables of Frequency 
The per cent of the total expenditure for maintenance and operation which is 
spent for teaching, supervision, janitors' salaries, and fuel. Average for two years, 
thirty cities reporting for the school years 1902-03 and 1903-04. 



Teaching 


Supervision 


Janitors 


Salaries 




Fuel 


Per Cent 


Frequency 


Per Cent Frequency 


Per Cent Frequency 


Per Cent 


Frequency 


54 


3 


2 


4 


3 


2 


3 


4 


55 


2 


3 


4 


4 


I 


4 


3 


56 


I 


4 


5 


5 


ID 


5 


8 


SI 


2 


5 





6 


II 


6 


9 


58 





6 


I 


7 


4 


7 


2 


59 


2 


7 


I 


8 


I 


8 


2 


60 


2 


8 


2 


9 


I 


9 





61 


I 


9 


2 






10 





62 


3 


10 


2 






II 


I 


63 


I 


II 


3 










64 


4 


12 


2 










65 


2 


13 













66 


2 


14 













67 


2 


15 


2 










68 


I 


16 













69 





17 


2 










70 

















71 

















72 


2 














73 


I 















It is interesting to compare the distributions given above 
with similar figures in Table 95 for one hundred and three cities 
considered in '' A Study of the Expenses of City School Sys- 
tems " by Dr. Harlan Updegraff [1912], recently issued by the 
United States Bureau of Education. 

TABLE 95 

Distribution of Percentages of Total School Expenses Expended for 

Various Purposes 

A. FOR superintendent's OFFICE 



Per Cent of Total School Expenses 


Number 
of Cities 


Per Cent of Total School Expenses 


Number 
of Cities 


Less than . 50 


2 
14 
15 
25 
17 


2 . c;o to 2 00 


13 
9 
4 
3 


0. 50 to 0.99 




1 . 00 to 1 . 49 


•?. "^O to ^ .00 


1 . 50 to 1 .99 


4.00 to 4. 50 


2.00 to 2.49 





298 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 95 {Continued) 

Distribution of Percentages of Total School Expenses Expended for 

Various Purposes 

B. general control 



Less than i . 00, 
1 . 00 to 1 . 99. . 
2.00 to 2.99. . 
3.00 to 3.99. . 
4.00 to 4.99. . 




5 . 00 to 5 
6.00 to 6 
7 ..00 to 7 
8 . 00 to 8 
9 . 00 to 9 




c. salaries of elementary teachers 



Below 42 . 50. . 
42.50 to 44-99- 



00 to 47 
SO to 49 
00 to 52 
50 to 54 



55.00 to 57 
57.50 to 59 
60.00 to 62 
62.50 to 64 
65.00 to 67 
Above 67.50 



.49. 
.99, 
.49, 
.99, 
.49, 



D. TOTAL expenses OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



Below 65 . 00. . 
65.00 to 67.49. 
67.50 to 69.99, 
70.00 to 72.49, 
72.50 to 74.99, 




75.00 to 77 
77-50 to 79 
80.00 to 82 
82.50 to 84 
85.00 to 87 




SALARIES OF SECONDARY TEACHERS 



Per Cent of Total School Expenses 


Number 
of Cities 


Per Cent of Total School Expenses 


Number 
of Cities 


Below 6 00. . 


2 

7 
18 
26 


12 00 to 13 99 


'70 


6 00 to 7 99. 


14. 00 to I '^ QQ 


17 

9 

3 


8 00 to Q 00 


16.00 to 17 99 


10 . 00 to 1 1 . 99 


18.00. 







TOTAL EXPENSES OF SECOND.A.RY SCHOOLS 



7.50 to 9.99. . 
10.00 to 12.49 
12.50 to 14.99 
15.00 to 17.49 




17.50 to 19.99, 
20.00 to 22.49, 
22.50 to 24.99, 
25 .00 to 27 .50, 



City School Expenditures 



299 



TABLE 95 {Continued) 

Distribution of Percentages of Total School Expenses Expended for 

Various Purposes 

G. salaries of teachers of all schools 



52.51054.9 


I 


67.5 to 69.9 


22 


55.01057.4 


4 


70.0 to 72.4 


17 


57.5 to 59. 9 


I 


72.5 to 74.9 


11 


60.0 to 62.4 


10 


75.0 to 77-4 


2 


62.5 to 64.9 


14 


77.5 to 80.0 


2 


65.0 to 67.4 


17 


Above 80 . 


2 



supervision of all schools 



Less than i . 00. 
1 .00 to 1 .99. . , 

2 . 00 to 2 . 

3 . 00 to 3 . 

4 . 00 to 4 . 

5 . 00 to 5 . 



6.00 to 6.99. . , 
7.00 to 7.99. . , 
8.00 to 8.99. . , 
9.00 to 9.99. . 
10.00 and over 



text-books, stationery, and school supplies of all schools 



Less than i . 00, 
1 .00 to 1 .99. . 
2.00 to 2.99. . 
3 . GO to 3 . 99. . 
4.00 to 4.99. . 




5 . 00 to 5 

6 . 00 to 6 

7 . 00 to 7 

8 . 00 to 8 

9 . 00 to 9 




14 



J. FUEL FOR ALL SCHOOLS 



Less than i . 00. 
1 .00 to 1 .99. . 
2 . 00 to 2 . 99. . 
3.00 to 3.99. . 
4.00 to 4.99. . 




5.00 to 5.99. 
6.00 to 6.99, 
7.00 to 7.99. 
8.00 to 8.99, 



K. INSTRUCTION, OPERATION, AND MAINTENANCE OF ALL SCHOOLS 



Below 84.00. . 
84 . 00 to 85 . 99, 
86.00 to 87.99, 
88.00 to 89.99. 
90.00 to 91 .99. 




92.00 to 93.99- 
94.00 to 95-99- 
96.00 to 97.99. 
98.00 to 100.00, 



28 
46 

14 

I 



300 



Educational A dm in istration 



TABLE 96 
Tables of Frequency 
Cost per pupil expressed in dollars, the average daily attendance being used as 
the basis of calculation. Fifty-eight cities, reporting for the school year 1902-03. 



Total Cost per Pupil Teachincc and 

Supervision 
Dollars Frequency Dollars Frequency 

6 I 

7 I 

8 o 

I 
o 
I 
o 

I 



Janitors' Salaries 



8 


I 


9 





10 





II 





12 


I 


13 





14 





IS 


I 


16 





17 





18 





19 


I 


20 


2 


21 


2 


22 


2 


23 


2 


24 


4 


25 


I 


26 


4 


27 


2 


28 


8 


29 


4 


30 


2 


31 


5 


32 


3 


Si 


I 


34 


2 


35 


3 


36 


I 


37 


I 


38 





39 





40 





41 


I 


42 





43 


I 


44 





45 





46 





47 





48 





49 





50 





51 


I 


52 





53 





54 


I 



9 

10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
iS 

19 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
?>i 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 



Dollars Frequency 
I 
O 



Fuel 

Dollars Frequency 
I 
o 



Text -books and 

Supplies 

Dollars Frequency 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 



City School Expenditures 



301 



TABLE 97 
Tables of Frequency 

Cost per pupil expressed in dollars, average for two years, the average daily at- 
tendance being used as the basis of calculation. Thirty cities, reporting for the 
school 3^ears 1902-03 and 1903-04. 



Tota] Cos 


tper 


Teachin, 


X and 


Janitors' Salaries 


Fuel 




Text-books and 




Pupil 




Superv 


ision 










Supplies 


Dollars Frequency Dollars Frequency 


Dollars 


Frequency 


Dollars Frequency 


Dollars 


Frequency 


19 




2 


















20 







13 


I 


I .0 


2 


•9 


2 


.8 


I 


21 







14 





I 


I 


" 2 







I 




9 


I 


22 







15 


I 


I 


2 


2 




I 


I 







2 


^2, 




I 


16 





I 


3 







2 


I 




I 


2 


24 




I 


17 


6 


I 


4 


2 




3 


I 




2 





25 




3 


18 


4 


I 


5 


3 




4 


2 




3 





26 




I 


19 


I 


I 


6 


2 




5 


3 




4 


I 


27 




3 


20 


5 


I 


7 







6 


3 




5 





28 




5 


21 




I 


8 


3 




7 


2 




6 


6 


29 




3 


22 


3 


I 


9 


3 




8 


2 




7 


3 


30 




I 


23 


I 


2 





3 




9 


2 




8 





31 




4 


24 





2 


I 


2 


2 





I 




9 


3 


32 




I 


25 


3 


2 


2 


I 


2 


I 


2 







I 


2>2> 




2 


26 


I 


2 


3 


I 


2 


2 





2 


I 





34 







27 





2 


4 


I 


2 


3 


3 


2 


2 





35 







28 





2 


5 





2 


4 


2 


2 


3 





36 







29 





2 


6 


I 


2 


5 





2 


4 





37 







30 





2 


7 





2 


6 





2 


5 





38 




I 


31 





2 


8 


I 


2 


7 





2 


6 


I 


39 







32 





2 


9 





2 


8 





2 


7 





40 







33 


I 


3 








2 


9 





2 


8 





41 







34 





3 


I 


I 


3 








2 


9 





42 







35 









3 


I 





3 








43 







36 









3 


2 





3 


I 





44 







31 









3 


3 


I 


3 


2 





45 







3^ 


I 










3 


3 


I 


46 



















3 


4 





47 



















3 


5 





48 



















3 


6 





49 



















3 


7 





50 



















3 


8 





51 




2 














3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 


9 


I 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 





































5 









302 Educational Administration 

TABLE 97 {Continued) 

Tables of Frequency 

Cost per pupil expressed in dollars, average for two years, the average daily at- 
tendance being used as the basis of calculation. Thirty cities, reporting for the 
school years 1902-03 and 1903-04. 

Total Cost per Teaching and Janitors' Salaries Fuel Text-books and 

Pupil Supervision Supplies 

Dollars Frequency Dollars Frequency Dollars Frequency Dollars Frequency Dollars Frequency 



2 O 

3 o 

4 o 

5 o 

6 o 

7 o 

8 o 

9 o 

o 

1 I 



It is interesting to compare with the distribution given above, 
the facts of Table 98 taken from Dr. Updegraff's study of city 
school expenses. 

The 103 cities of 30,000 population or over whose expenses 
presented are divided into four groups. Group I is composed 
of cities of 300,000 population or over in 1910; Group II, of cities 
of 100,000 to 300,000; Group III, of cities of 50,000 to 100,000; 
and Group IV, of cities of 30,000 to 50,000. The number of 
cities in each of the respective groups is as follows; 13, 20, 42, 28. 
The total number of cities in the United States in 1910 above 
30,000 in population was 184, distributed among the various 
groups as follows: 18, 32, 59, 75. 



City School Expenditures 



303 



TABLE 98 

Distribution of Average Costs, per Pupil Enrolled, op Various Expenses 

INVOLVED in the INSTRUCTION, OPERATION, AND MAINTENANCE OF ELEMEN- 
TARY Schools 

A. salaries of teachers 



Average Costs 



Cities of — 



Group I 



Group II Group III Group IV ^\ll^^ 



$S-$8.99. 
$9-$9.99. 
$io-$io 
$ii-$ii 

$I2-$I2 

$i4-$i4 

$i5-$i5 
$i6-$i6 

$i7-$i7 
$i8-$i8 
$i9-$i9 

$20-$20 

$2I-$2I 
$22-$22 
$23-$23 
$24-$24 
$25-$25 
$26-$27 



.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 



supervision 



Below $0 , 

$0 . 20— $0 , 
$0 . 4o-$o , 
$0 . 60-So , 
$0 . 8o-$o , 
$i-$i.i9- 

$1 . 20-$I , 

$i.40-$i, 
$1 . 6o-$i , 
$i.8o-$i, 

$2-$2.I9. 

$2 . 20-$2 , 
$2.40-$2, 
$2.6o-$2 

$2.8o-$2, 

$3--153-2o. 



304 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 98 {Continued) 
Distribution or Average Costs, per Pupil Enrolled, of Various Expenses 
Involved in the Instruction, Operation, and Maintenance of Elemen- 
tary Schools 

c. text-books, stationery, and general supplies 



Below 

$0 . 20- 
$0.40- 
$0 . 60- 
$0.80- 
$i-$i . 
$1 . 20- 
$1.40- 
$1 . 60- 
$1 . 80- 

$2-$2. 



d. salaries of janitors, engineers, and firemen 



$i-$i.i9. 



4o-$o.59. 
60-so. 79. 
8o-$o . 99. 



2o-J8)i.39 
,4o-$i.59 
6o-$i.79 
,80-$ I. 99 
-$2.19. . . 
20-82.39 
40-$2. ^9 
60-$ 2 . 79 
80-$ 2. 99 

i$3-$3.i9. .. 

$3. 20-83.40 



Average Costs 



Below $0. 20. 
$o.2o-$o.39. 
$0.40-80.59. 
$o.6o-$o. 79. 
%o . 8o-$o . 99. 

$i-s8i.i9 

$i.2o-$i.39. 
$i.40-$i.59. 
$i.6o-$i.8o. 



Group I 



Cities of- 



Group II Group III 



Group IV 



City School Expenditures 



305 



TABLE 98 (Continued) 

Distribution of Average Costs, per Pupil Enrolled, of Various Expenses 
Invol\'ed in the Instruction, Operation, and Maintenance of Elemen- 
tary Schools 

F. repairs of buildings 



So . 20- 
$0 . 40- 
$0 . 60- 
So . 8c- 
$i-$i 
$1 . 20- 
$1.40- 
$i.6o- 
$1.80- 

$2-$2 
$2 . 20- 
$2.40- 
$2.60- 
$2.So- 

$3-^3 
S3 . 20- 

$3 ■ 40- 



G. total expense of instruction, operation, and maintenance of 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



$11- 
$12- 
$13- 

$14- 
S15- 
S16- 

$17- 
$18- 
$19- 
$20- 
S21- 
S22- 

t2S- 
$24- 
$25- 
$26- 
$27- 
$28- 
$29- 
$30- 
S3I- 
$32- 

^33- 



■Sii 

■$I2 

$13. 
$14, 

$15 
$16 

■$17 
$18 

$19 

$20 
$21 
■$22 
■S23 
•$24 
■$25 
$26 
$27 
$28 
$29 
$30 
$31 
$32. 
•S34. 



3o6 



Educational Administration 

TABLE 98 {Continued) 



Distribution of Average Costs, per Pupil Enrolled, of Various Expenses 
Involved in the Instruction, Operation, and Maintenance of Second- 
ary Schools 

a. salaries of teachers 



Average Costs 



$20-$22.49. . . 

$22.5o-$24.99. 

$25-$27.49. .. 
$27.50-129.99. 
$30-$32.49. .. 
$32.5o-$34.99. 
S3S-$37-49- • • 
S37-50-$39-99- 
$40-$42.49. . . 
$42.so-$44.99. 

$45-$47-49--- 

$47.5o-$49.99. 

$50-$52.49. .. 

$52.5o-$54.99. 

$55-$57-49--. 

^57-5o-$59-99- 

$6o-$62.49. . . 

$62.5o-$64.99. 

$65-$67.49. . . 

$67.5o-$7o.oo. 



Cities of- 



Group I Group II Group III Group IV c\t\e?, 



All 



B. TEXT-BOOKS, STATIONERY, AND GENERAL SCHOOL SUPPLIES 



49 

50-80.99. 
-$1.49. . . , 
5o-$i.99. 

-$2.49 

5o-$2.99. 

-$3-49. ... 
5o-$3.99. 

-$4-49 

50-14.99. 

-$5-49 

50-$5.99. 
and over. 



I 


3 


3 


2 


2 




2 


3 


I 


3 


2 


I 


4 


2 


3 




I 




I 





I 


2 


3 





City School Expenditures 



307 



TABLE 98 {Continued) 

Distribution of Average Costs, per Pupil Enrolled, of Various Expenses 
Involved in the Instruction, Operation, and Maintenance of Second- 
ary Schools 

c. salaries of janitors, engineers, and firemen 



■*I .24 

25-$!. 49. 

5o-$i . 74. 

75-^1 •99- 

$2 .24 

25-$2.4Q. 

5o-$2.74. 
75-S2.99. 
$3-24. ... 
25-$3.49. 
50-S3 . 74. 
75-$3-99. 
$4-24. •-. 
2S-S4-49- 
5o-$4 . 74. 

75-$4-99- 
$5 . 24. . . . 
25-$5.49. 

5o-$5 • 74- 
75-$S-99. 
and over. 



AvER.\GE Costs 



Below $0.20. 
$o.2o-$o.39. 



40-$o.S9. 

6o-$o.79. 

8o-$o.99. 

$1.19. . . 

20-$ I. 39. 

40-$i.59. 

6o-$i.7Q. 

8o-s$i.99. 

$2.19... 

20-$2.39. 

40-$2 . 59. 
6o-$2 . 79. 
8o-$2.99. 



$3 and over. 



Cities of- 



Group I 



Group II 



Group III Group IV 



All 



3o8 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 98 {Continued) 

Distribution of Average Costs, per Pupil Enrolled, of Various Expenses 
Involved in the Instruction, Operation, and Maintenance of Second- 
ary Schools 



repairs to buildings 



25-$o. 
5o-$o, 

75-$o. 
-%x . 24. 

25-$i. 
5o-$i . 
75-$i. 

-$2 . 24. 
25-$2. 

50-$ 2, 

75-$2, 

-$3.24. 
25-%. 

5o-$3 . 
75-$3- 
-$4.24. 
2S-%A- 
5o-$4. 
75-^4. 
and ov 



'! 



I 


2 


3 


I 


4 




2 




2 


2 






I 


3 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


I 



I 















I 
3 ! 



total expense of instruction, operation, and maintenance 



$35- 
$40- 

$45- 
$50- 

$55- 
$60- 
$65- 
S70- 
$80- 
$90- 



-$29 
-$34 
-$39 
-$44 
-$49 
-$54 
-$59 
-$64 
-$69 
-$79 



.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 
.99. 



Dr. Updegraff states the following conclusions based on com- 
parisons of the average costs of the same kinds of expenses in the 
different groups of cities: 

I. The larger the city the greater the average cost per pupil 
enrolled of — 



City School Expenditures 309 

(a) Total cost of instruction, operation, and maintenance of 
elementary schools. 

(h) Salaries of elementary-school teachers. 

{c) Janitors of elementary schools. 

{d) Repairs of elementary schools. 

(c) Total cost of instruction, operation, and maintenance of 
secondary schools. 

(/) Salaries of secondary-school teachers. 

{g) Janitors of secondary schools. 

(h) Repairs of secondary schools. 

2. There is no apparent tendency in the variation of the aver- 
age cost of — 

(a) Text-books, stationery, and general school supplies of 
elementary schools, 

{h) Fuel of elementary and secondary schools. 

Table 94 gives frequency tables based upon the average of the 
first and second years' figures from thirty cities. It will be no- 
ticed that the range is somewhat less, due largely to the fact 
that there are fewer cases. 

The tables for the first year's figures alone are, of course, less 
reliable than those which give the average for two years, so far 
as any one city is concerned. However, the greater variability 
found in these figures for the first year which does not appear 
where the average for the two years is taken is due largely to the 
fact that many of the cities which give the extreme variation have 
not yet reported for two years. In Table 93 for example, the 
cities reporting 27%, 28%, 49%, and 52%, respectively, for 
teaching, are cities Nos. 47, 23, 11, and 52, none of which reported 
for the second year. The variabihty for the first year's figures 
is, simply because there are more cases, more nearly a correct 
representation of the facts of variabihty, we beheve, than the 
average of the two years where many of the extreme cases are 
not found. It is remarkable that so small a proportion as 27% 



3IO Educational Administration 

should be devoted to teaching in one case, when other cities use 
73% of their funds for this purpose — that some cities should 
give 2.7 times as great a proportion for teaching as others. 

The variation in the proportion which is spent for supervision 
is not less remarkable. Here the cities seem to divide themselves 
into groups — those which spend a comparatively large propor- 
tion of their money for supervision, and those in which this item 
is allowed a smaller share of the money. One feels that super- 
vision which costs 17% of the money available for schools should 
produce remarkable results in the way of saving time and energy 
for teachers and pupils, if it is to be justified when compared with 
other cities in which 2% of the budget seems to secure satisfactory 
supervision. 

The range for janitors' salaries may indicate a real difference 
in the care of school buildings, or, in rare instances, perhaps 
some connection between ward politics and the janitor's position. 
Leaving out the most extreme case, it seems rather remarkable 
that in some instances one dollar out of every eleven available 
for the maintenance and operation of the schools should be spent 
for the care of buildings. 

That fuel should be allowed in some cities three times as great 
a proportion of the money spent as in others would not seem 
strange if our cities were found in sections of the country with 
very different climatic conditions; but that four or even five times 
as much should be necessary under conditions which are not 
greatly different seems preposterous. 

Table 94, which is based on the average for two years, gives the 
most accurate information we have for the thirty cities which 
reported two years. The limits within which the cases lie are, as 
has already been noted, somewhat smaller than in the case of the 
first year's figures considered alone. This is due largely to the 
fact that we have a smaller number of cases. The variability is, 
nevertheless, sufficientily striking with a range of from 54% to 



City School Expenditures 311 

73% fo^ teaching, from 2% to 17% for supervision, from 3% to 
9% for janitors' salaries, and from 3% to 11% for fuel. 

Table 95 gives the variability for the cost per pupil for some 
of the principal items of the budget. The cost per pupil as given 
here is based on the average daily attendance. 

In the tables given above, we have an expression of the varia- 
bility in terms of the amount of money spent. We sometimes 
think of the cities in the region covered by this study as spending 
a very large amount for public education. The average inhabi- 
tant, if not the school officers themselves, of any of these cities 
will probably say that their school system is quite as good as any 
other, or at least as good as the average. As a matter of fact, we 
find a great variabihty in the total amount per pupil spent, as well 
as in the amount spent for various items. No one believes that 
the city which spends $54.00 per pupil furnishes an education six 
and three quarters times as good as the city which spends only 
$8.00 per pupil. On the other hand, it hardly seems possible that 
the opportunity for education in the eight-dollar city can be equal 
to that found in the fifty-four-dollar city. Teaching and super- 
vision which cost $6.00 per child are hardly likely to be as good 
as those which cost three,, four, five, or even six times as much. 
No argument based upon the difference in the cost of Kving could 
account for so great a difference in the cost of instruction. Either 
the teachers receive a very much smaller salary in the cities 
which pay a relatively small amount per pupil, or they have much 
larger classes to instruct, or both conditions taken together 
explain the variability. 

One may infer that the number of children determines the 
number of seatings which must be furnished, if not the number 
and size of buildings; and yet janitors' salaries may cost from 
40 cents to $3.00 per pupil, and fuel from 40 cents to $4.70 per 
pupil. 

If we neglect the cases where a very little is spent for text-books 



312 Educational Administration 

and supplies — the cases where they are not furnished free to 
pupils — we still find that some cities spend three or four times 
as much per pupil as others for these articles. It seems rather 
remarkable that the real value of books and supplies furnished 
to pupils should vary so much; and even if this were the case, one 
might question whether the money is spent to best advantage 
in those cities which spend the larger amounts. Might not a 
part of this money have been spent to greater advantage in some 
other way? 

The limits within which all of the cases lie are significant, but 
are not so true a measure of the variability of the group as are 
the limits within which the middle 50% of the cases He. A single 
exceptional case may double the range within which all of the 
cases lie, but manifestty this does not double the variability of 
the group. This figure, which we call 2 Q, is found by counting 
in from both the upper and lower limits until 25% of the cases 
have been covered, and then finding the range within which the 
remaining 50% of the cases lie. For instance, in Table 92, in 
which there are 58 cases, we count off from the lower limit fifteen 
cases (25% = i4K)j which brings us to the group of three cities 
which spend 58% of their money for teaching; in like manner, 
counting from the other extreme, 25% of the cases are found to 
spend more than 67% of their money for teaching. The limits 
within w^hich the middle 50% of the cases lie are, then, 58 and 67, 
and 2 Q equals (67 — 58 = 9) nine. After we have found the 2 Q, 
the relation which it bears to the median gives us a still better 
idea of the variability of the group. If it is desired to compare 
the variability of the group in several traits, the relation of the 
2 Q to the square root of the median is more exact than either of 
the figures before suggested because this measure will be less 
affected by errors due to inaccuracy of measurements, or to the 
small number of measurements made. In Table 99 below, 2 Q, 
the per cent which 2 Q is of the median, and the per cent which 



City School Expenditures 



?>U 



2 Q is of the square root of the median are given, 
derived from the. frequency tables aheady given. 



This table is 



TABLE 99 
Measures of Variability for City School Expenditures 



Per cent of total spent for each item. First 
3^ear's figures. 

Teaching 

Supervision 

Janitors' Salaries 

Fuel 

Per cent of total spent for each item. Average 
of two years' figures. 

Teaching _ 

Supervision 

Janitors' Salaries 

Fuel 

Cost per pupil. First year's figures. 

Total cost per pupil 

Teaching and Supervision 

Janitors' Salaries 

Fuel 

Text-books and Supplies 





Per cent. 


2Q 


which 2 Q is 




of the Median 





14 


8 


105 


I 


16 


3 


50 


9 


14 


8 


100 


4 


65 


I 


16 


7 


25 


6 


3i 


•7 


37 


.8 


50 


•9 


53 



Per cent 

which 2 Q is 

of the Square 

Root of the 

Median 



113 

290 

40 

123 



112 

283 

166 

42 



132 
136 

50 
61 
69 



By calculating the deviations from the medians it will be seen 
that certain variations in one item are accompanied by like vari- 
ations in some other item, or that a plus deviation in one item 
is accom'panied by a negative deviation for the other, or vice versa. 
Take, for example, the items of janitors' salaries and salaries for 
teaching and supervision. In these items one is struck by the 
fact that a plus deviation in salaries paid janitors is often accomx- 
panied by a negative deviation for teaching and supervision, and 
vice versa. Picking out the cases, we have Table 100, 



314 



Educational Administration 



TABLE loo 

The Relation Between the Amount Spent for Janitors' Salaries and the 
Amount Spent for Salaries of Teachers and Supervisors 



No. of City 


Janitors' Salaries 


Salaries for teaching 
and Supervision 


I 


+4. 


—5-5 


7 


+3-3 


—3 


4 


9 


+ 1-3 


— I 


5 


II 


+3- 


—9 


9 


14 


+ -7 


—3 


6 


17 


+ .8 




5 


19 


+ .6 


—5 


9 


23 


+8.7 


—13 




27 


+ I.I 


—4 


S 


28 


+ 1. 


2 




29 


+ .8 


—6 


6 


30 


+ .1 


— 


I 


31 


+ -4 


— II 


8 


34 


+ 1-9 


2 


4 


43 


+ 1-5 


2 


4 


47 


+ 2.3 


— 26 


9 


52 


+ .8 


12 


2 


56 


+ 2.2 





2 


6 


— -9 


+5 


9 


8 


— .1 


+ 


5 


lO 


— -3 


+4 


3 


20 


—I . 


+ 2 


4 


21 


— -3 


+ IO 


5 


22 




+3 


9 


25 


— T-3 


+6 


7 


26 


— -3 


+ 1 


8 


33 


— . I 


+ 11 


I 


36 


— 2.7 


+ 5 


2 


37 


— .8 


+4 


9 


38 


— 2.4 


+ 2 


8 


39 


— I. 


+ 2 


2 


46 


—1.6 


+ 1 


4 


49 


2. 2 


+4 


8 


51 


— -7 


+8 


4 


57 


—1-5 


+3- 


4 


58 


— .8 


+ 1. 


6 



The gross deviations from the median are significant, especially 
when deviations for different items are compared with each other 
as indicated above, but the range of variability is better indicated, 
I beheve, by giving the per cent of the median or other single 



\ City School Expenditures 315 

figure indicating a central tendency. For example, the median 
for janitors' salaries (first year's figures, per cent basis) is 6.2%, 
and for salaries for teaching and supervision it is 71.2%. Now, 
a deviation of .6% in the case of janitors' salaries seems insignif- 
icant when compared with a deviation of 7.1% for teaching and 
supervision — the one is almost twelve times the other; but when 
we remember that each one represents a deviation equivalent to 
about 10% of the median, we are nearer recognizing their real 
significance, I befieve, than when we consider them merely in 
gross. Even this method of comparison is, however, misleading, 
since it is absolutely impossible for the items '' teaching and super- 
vision "or "teaching" to vary as much as 100% above or below 
the median when the per cent of the total is taken as the basis 
of comparison, because the median for teaching and supervision 
amounts to 70.7% and for teaching to 63.1% of the total. On 
the cost per pupil basis, while it is not impossible to have a varia- 
tion equal to 100% of the median, or greater, for these larger 
items, yet, even if such variations occur, they are not comparable 
to variations which give the same per cent of the median where 
this item represents a very much smaller part of the total expendi- 
ture. Even after these qualifications (which show us that we 
must be on our guard in comparing variabiHties for different items) 
have been made, I am still of the opinion that such calculations 
are very helpful in giving us a correct idea of the variabiHty of all 
items, as well as permitting us to compare the variability of items 
whose medians represent about the same proportion of the total, 
or nearly the same cost per pupil. 

In Table loi the items which apparently show the least varia- 
bility are ''total," "teaching and supervision," and "teaching." 
As noted above, any deviation above the median is possible; i. e. 
the deviation above the median may be 100% or more of the 
median. It is striking to note that the deviations expressed as 
per cents of the median for the total amount spent range from 



3i6 



Educational Administration 











1 1 






1 
1 


1 

L 










"1 






1 1 


1 

1 






1 
1 






1 


1 




1 


5 


3 55 


57 
r— T 




65 






73 




I I 



L 



58 60 



64 



70 



78 80 



Fig. 24. Teaching 

Fig. 25. Supervision 

Fig. 26. Teachinfij and supervision 

Fig. 27. Janitors' salaries 



City School Expenditures 



317 



3 4 



II 13 



rH-J , r— ^, 
r— 3 — 

I !l 1! -\ 







|! 


1 _ 






W 1 


li 1 


f" "1 



I 1 3 



7 10 

Fig. 28. Text-books and supplies 
Fig. 29. Fuel 
Fig. 30. Repairs 



14 



3i8 



Educational Administration 















' 














! 1 








r ' 








ll 




i 1 






1 1! II 1 



13 15 



27 



33 



33 



ZZL 



1 1 



13 15 



29 



35 



1 








1 






1 






r ~i 




1 ! 




.. 1 


1 









0.50 I. 1.5 



4. 



5.5 







■" "I 




^""■ 


1 
















— 


- 



















1. i_ 


r -i 






II 




! ! 1 



I 1.25 



1.75 



~ ^ tiitlZl — 1 

td I! I 



rr=nl 



0.9 I.I 1.3 



1.7 



2.5 



Fig. 31. Teaching and supervision 

Fig. 32. Teaching 

Fig. 2>3>- Supervision 

Fig. 34. Janitors' salaries 

Fig. 35. Text-books and supplies 



33 



City School Expenditures 



319 





-1_ 
















r~ 








1 





















L_ 






1 

Lj 

1 1 


























1 i i 


1 1 




0.9 1.1 
1 


1. 


3 






.7 


2.7 


3.3 




















— 1 












,L_ 

;i 












1 1 1 


II 1 


r -\ 


0.50 0.75 


1 










i 


Fig 
Fig 


.36. 


3. 

Fuel 
Repairs 




4. 



— 30.6% to + 80.2%; while for teaching and supervision the 
range is from — 35.1% to+88.8%. Apparently the amount paid 
per child for teaching and supervision is even more variable than 
the total amount of money spent per child. Possibly this is 
what we might have expected when we remember that teachers of 
some sort can be had for almost any salary, while some of the 
other commodities or utiKties which must be had to run the school 
have a much more definite market value. The great range for 
supervision from — 73-7% to + 166% is at least partially to be 
accounted for, I believe, by the fact that no very clear distinction 
exists between teachers and supervisors or principals in some 
systems. Those who should have been reported as teachers are, 
doubtless, in some instances reported as supervisors, and viceversa. 

The items "janitors' salaries," "text-books and supplies," 
and "fuel" furnish the best opportunity for comparison of varia- 
bihty. The medians for these items are respectively $1.90, $1.60, 
and $1.70. The range of deviations for janitors' salaries is from 

— 42-8% to + 53.5% of the median; for text-books and supplies, 
from — 42.7% to + 274%; andfor f uel, from — 40.9% to + 93.6%. 



320 Educational Administration 

That the smallest proportional plus variation should be found in 
the item of janitors' salaries, and the largest for the item of text- 
books and supplies seems to me to indicate that, in some cities 
at least, more money means more of those things which make 
possible efficient work in the schools. 

The deviations for the item of repairs show a range of from 

— 74.8% to + 196.6% of the median. There would probably be 
less variability in this item if we had the figures for a period of 
five or ten years, instead of only two years' figures. 

Table 102, which gives the deviations from the medians on the 
per cent basis (the average for two years) reduced to per cent 
of the median, offers another interesting view of the variabiHty. 
When we ask how a city spends its money regardless of the 
amount of money which it has to spend, we are dealing with the 
problem which every administrator of schools must face. From 
a median of 70.7% spent for teaching and supervision, we find that 
the variations range from — ii-7% to +14.3% of that propor- 
tion, while the deviations for teaching alone amount to from 

— 14.4% to + 16.1%. In these, and in the other items given in 
this table, we find a smaller range than is found for the same 
items on the cost per pupil basis. This means, of course, that 
amount of money per pupil available for maintenance and oper- 
ation of schools varies much more than does the proportional 
distribution of that money. 

On the basis used in this table, as well as on the cost per pupil 
basis, we find that the range above the median is less for janitors' 
salaries than for fuel or text-books and supplies— that of the 
three, text-books and supplies show the greatest range. The 
range for janitors' salaries is from — 41% to +54.1% of the median; 
for fuel, from — 40.7% to + 89.8%; for text-books and supplies, 
from — 94.8% to + 131.6%. In a later section, where the rela- 
tionship of these items to the total is worked out exactly, the 
item of text-books and supplies is shown to be more closely corre- 



City School Expenditures 



321 



TABLE loi 

Deviations from the medians; average cost per pupil for two years reduced to per 
cents of the medians. The figures refer to per cents and tenths of per cents. 



>> 










.^ 


T3 






u 




■a c 






_S 


C 






"0 




rt';« 







C/3 


Si ^ 






1 




11 


to 
.S 
13 


:2 
t 


"12 


ll 




£2 


3 


3 




y 3 




a 
p 


'5 




3 

:= 


& 


'A 


H 


H 


H 


c/: 


^ 


H 


U^ 


P< 


Medians 


28.8 


20.5 


18.3 


2. 2 


1.9 


1.6 


1-7 


I . I 


5 


20.5 


23-9 


34-4 


—64.5 


21.4 





40.9 


-65.5 


6 


—9-7 


—9-3 


—4.9 


46. I 


—16. 1 


6.1 


-II. 7 


56.1 


8 


10.4 


12.2 


10.9 


23.1 





18.3 


5-8 


9-4 


13 


10.8 


13-7 


.6 


124.0 


5-4 


6.1 


23-4 


—28.1 


14 





—3-9 


— .6 


—36.9 


10. 7 





46.8 


56.1 


15 


— II-5 


—9-3 


—10.4 





—16. 1 





-5-8 


—37-4 


16 


—1.4 


4.4 


4-9 





° 








—9.4 


20 


—19.8 


—15.6 


—9-3 


—73-7 


-32.1 


—36.6 


^ii 


—37-4 


27 


—9.4 


—II -7 


—19. 1 


50-7 


5-4 





-46.8 


-18.7 


28 


3-5 


1-5 


7-1 


— 46. 1 


16. 1 


—36.6 






29 


—5-9 


—13.2 


—71 


-64-5 


10.7 


18.3 


—II. 7 


18.7 


30 


32.0 


30.2 


39-9 


—55-3 


26.7 







196.6 


31 


2.1 


7.8 


— I . I 


—64.5 


5-4 




93-6 


112. 2 


32 


8.3 


— 1 .0 


—5-5 


36.9 


5-4 


—42.7 


17.6 


121. 6 


34 


17.0 


22.9 


18.6 


—32.3 


69 5 




40.9 





35 


-5-6 


1.9 


8.2 


—50.7 


—16. 1 




-5-8 





36 


10.4 


24.4 


9-3 


148.0 


—37-4 




5-8 


-65.5 


37 


—30.6 


—25-9 


—35-5 


59-9 


-42.8 




-17.6 


—37-4 


39 


5-6 


9.8 


3-3 


64.5 


—10.7 




17.6 


18.7 


40 


14.6 


9-3 


2-7 


59-9 


—32.1 


24.4 


46.8 


9 4 


41 


—13.2 


— 14.6 


—17.0 


4.6 


—37-4 


— 12. 2 





-56.1 


42 





—16.6 


—14.8 


106.0 


—21.4 


61 .0 


—II. 7 


-18.7 


43 


—1-7 





6.6 


—55-3 





—42.7 





-28.1 


4§ 








5-5 


—41-5 


— 16.T 


6.1 


—29.2 


56.1 


48 


— 12. 2 


—14. 1 


—20.8 


41-5 


—21.4 





—II. 7 


-37-4 


52 


-3-8 


—15-2 


—14.8 


23.1 


10.7 


18.3 


—35 I 


149.0 


54 


78.8 


64.9 


52.5 


166.0 


53-5 


274 -3 


35-1 


-74-8 


55 


— 26.4 


—35-1 


—ro-z 


—59-9 


-42.8 


— 30.5 


—40.9 


-65.5 


56 


2.4 


2.9 


I . I 


36.9 


32.1 


—30 ■ S 


—17.6 


18.7 


57 


80.2 


^^.^ 


S3. 6 


134.0 


42. S 


104.0 


17.6 


102.8 



322 



Educational Administration 



TABLE I02 

Deviations from the medians; average for two years of per cent of total which 
each item is reduced to per cents of the medians. The figures refer to per cents and 
tenths of per cents. 



>. 


T) 






^ 


V 






u 


g.i 


be 


a 




M 


G 
1 ^ 






"o 

XI 

E 




1 


:2 
5 





It 


3 


£2 

'rt 

a 




H 




(/2 


'S 


1) 






1 








•— > 


H 






Medians 


70.7 


63.1 


8.0 


6.1 


5^7 


5-9 


3-5 


5 


6.6 


16. I 


—72.5 


9.8 


—8.8 


20.3 


—74-3 


6 


•4 


5-7 


— 45-0 


—1.6 


15-8 


1-7 


85.8 


8 


2-5 


1-4 


50 


— 1.6 


5-3 


—3-4 


2.9 


13 


30 


—5-9 


92.5 


3-3 


—7.0 


II. 8 


—28.6 


14 


—3-2 


•5 


—38.8 


21.4 


—1.8 


37-3 


68.6 


15 


5-7 


4-3 


II . 2 


3-3 


17.6 


5-1 


—20. 1 


16 


6.8 


7.6 


— 5-0 


8.2 


— 1.8 


3-4 





20 


5-5 


14.4 


-67.7 


— 13.2 


—22.8 


45-8 


—14-3 


27 


—3-7 


—II. 4 


57-7 


24.6 


22.8 


—40.7 


2-9 


28 


—1.4 


4-3 


—51-2 


16.4 


—40.4 






29 


—7-1 


— •5 


-62.5 


26.3 


21 .1 


—5-1 


— 40. 1 


30 


— ■3 


7-4 


-67.7 


3-3 




— 22.0 


137.2 


31 


—9-5 


—30 


—66.2 


8.2 




89.8 


122.7 


32 


-6.5 


—13-9 


26.2 


4-9 


—50-9 


6.8 


102.8 


34 


—30 


1-7 


— 45-0 


541 




II. 9 


—5-7 


35 


8.5 


15-5 


—52.5 


—6.6 


—94.8 





8.6 


36 


143 


— .8 


115. 


—41.0 


—87.8 


—1-7 


-65.7 


37 


7-8 


—6.2 


115. 


—14.8 




17.0 


— 2.9 


39 


4-5 


— 1.6 


48.7 


— II-5 




10. 2 


17.2 


40 


—3-7 


—9-7 


38.8 


—37-7 


7.0 


23-7 


2.9 


41 


— •9 


—3-5 


13 -7 


—26.2 


—1.8 


13.6 


—48.6 


42 


—1-3 


—14-3 


96.2 


—14.8 


59-7 


-13.6 


— II-5 


43 


1.8 


8.9 


-58.7 


4-9 


—42.2 





—22.9 


45 


• 7 


6.0 


-46.2 


—9.9 


7.0 


— 33-9 


68.6 


48 


—3-1 


—9.0 


51-2 


—6.6 


10.6 


—5-1 


—22.9 


52 


—II. 7 


— 10.9 


—23-7 


4.9 


28.1 


— 39-0 


179.8 


54 


—7-5 


—14.4 


41.2 


— II-5 


132.6 


— 18.8 





55 


— 2. 1 


2. 1 


— 40.0 


—8.2 


1.8 


-13.6 


—42.9 


56 


• 7 


—3-5 


28.7 


36.1 


—33-3 


—25-4 


25-7 


57 


5-4 


2.7 


21 . 2 


— 16.4 




—33-9 


20.1 



City School Expenditures 323 

lated with the total amount spent than are either of the other 
items. 

As a conclusion to the discussion of variability, it may not be 
out of place to suggest certain Hmits within which, in my judg- 
ment, the cost per pupil or per cent of total amount spent for 
each item should lie. Allowing for some difference in the cost 
of living, it seems to me that the superintendent of schools in any 
city spending less than $30 per pupil for the maintenance and 
operation of schools, should investigate in order to find out 
whether the schools are getting their just proportion of the money 
spent by the city. This amount seems small when compared 
with the rates of tuition charged to day pupils in our best private 
schools, where the tuition even in the lower grades is commonly 
$100 to $200 per year. It is difficult to place the upper limit for 
the total cost per pupil, except by saying that the expenditure 
should be increased to such an extent that the public schools 
shall be able to do as efficient work as our best private schools. 
When we compare the meager provision which was made for 
pubHc education fifty years ago with an expenditure of $54 per 
pupil reported by one of the cities with which this study deals, we 
are inclined to feel hopeful for the future. If the superintendent 
of schools, or other school officer, has seen to it that as much 
money as possible is provided for the public schools, his next 
problem is to apportion the money secured among the several 
items of the budget to the best possible advantage. From the 
data given above, it is my judgment that an ideal budget would 
give to each of the principal items not less than the first propor- 
tion mentioned in the table below, nor more than that indicated 
by the last figure, except that cities spending an unusually large 
amount per pupil should, I beheve, spend a relatively larger 
proportion for teaching and supervision, and for text-books and 
supplies; while the proportion spent for fuel, repairs, and janitors' 
salaries should increase much more slowly. 



324 Educational Administration 





% of Total % of Totals 


Teaching and Supervision from 70% to 75% 


Supervision alone 


' 7% " 10% 


Teaching alone 


' 60% " 68% 


Janitors' Salaries 


' 5% " 7% 


Text-books and Supplies 


' 4% " 6% 


Fuel 


" 5% " 7% 


Repairs 


' 3% " 5% 



Teaching and supervision are the most important factors in 
an effective school system and should, in my opinion, receive a 
greater rather than a smaller proportion than that usually given. 
The limits given for supervision are high rather than low, I think. 
There is a tendency to-day, I believe, to differentiate the work 
of the supervisor of instruction from that of the class teacher on 
the one hand, and, on the other, from the mere routine work of 
the assistant who keeps the office records. This means that a 
competent supervising principal can do the work of supervision 
formerly done by five or six men; and that even though he re- 
ceives a larger salary than was paid any one of the five or six be- 
fore, the proportion paid for supervision, even when ofhce clerks' 
salaries are included, has diminished. Janitors' salaries, fuel, and 
repairs are fixed charges upon the school revenue, which should 
not much increase in proportion to the amount per pupil avail- 
able for school purposes. 

In a recent bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education 
the distribution of the money spent ($56,000,000) by one hundred 
and three cities, each having more than 30,000 population, among 
the various items of the budget is as shown in Table 103.^ 

The best way to decide just what is the best way to apportion 
the money among the various items of the budget would be to 
find out which school system is doing the best work, by testing 
the pupils in the system, and then to adopt as the ideal apportion- 
ment that distribution of moneys which is found in the most 
efficient school systems. 

^ Harlan Updegraff — A Study of Expenses of City School Systems. Bulletin, 
191 2: No. 5. 



City School Expenditures 



325 



TABLE 103 

Per Cent of Total Expenses for Various Items of the Budget for all Cities 

Combined 



Items 

General control 

Elementary schools 

Secondary schools 

Normal, evening, vacation, and special schools 

Miscellaneous expenses 

Total 

Total expenses, general control 

Salaries of teachers, all schools ■ 

Salaries and expenses of supervision, all schools 

Text-books, stationery, and general school supplies, all schools 

Janitors, engineers, and firemen, all schools 

Other expenses of operation, all schools 

Apparatus and equipment, including repairs and replacements thereof 

all schools 

Repairs to buildings 

Miscellaneous expenses 

Total : 



Per Cent 



3-45 
76. 20 

14 -93 
2-75 
2.67 



ICO. CO 



3-45 
Co. 92 

215 
3-43 
6.92 
5 23 

1-57 
5 ■ 66 
2.67 



Relationships 

In the discussion of variability given above, it was suggested 
that a more careful study of the data given would enable us to 
measure exactly the relationships which exist among the various 
items of the budget. Such questions of relationship naturally 
suggest themselves when one considers the distribution of money 
for different purposes. Do cities which spend a large total 
amount per pupil spend a correspondingly large amount for teach- 
ing? As the amount per pupil increases, is more money spent 
for every purpose, or are there certain items of expense which do 
not increase in proportion to the increased cost per pupil? What 
is the relation between a large amount of money spent for super- 
vision and the amount spent for text-books and supplies, fuel, 
repairs, etc.? If a larger proportion than usual of the money 



326 Educational Administration 

available for school purposes is spent for janitors' salaries, what 
effect may we expect this to have upon teachers' salaries? These 
and many other similar questions can be answered by determining 
the relationships which exist among the various items of the 
budget, on both the cost per pupil and per cent of total bases. 

From the tables of deviations of medians given above the fact 
that relationships exist might, perhaps, be inferred, but no one 
could from such large tables of details infer the particular relation- 
ships which do actually exist. It is just here that the Pearson 
Coefficient of Correlation is invaluable. The following explana- 
tions, adapted from Thorndike's Educational Psychology (page 
26), will explain the meaning of the coefficient of correlation to 
the reader not already famihar with its use. 

'' The coefhcient of correlation is a simple figure so calculated 
from the several records as to give the degree of relationship be- 
tween any two items which will best account for all the separate 
cases in the group. In other words, it expresses the degree of 
relationship from which the actual cases might have arisen with 
least improbability. It has possible values from + 100 per cent 
through o to — 100 per cent." 

A coefficient of correlation of + 100% between two items of the 
budget (say teachers' salaries and text-books) on the basis of the 
cost per pupil would indicate that the city which spent the most 
for teachers' salaries, spent the most for text-books; that the city 
which spent the least for teachers' salaries, spent the least for 
text-books; that if the cities were ranged in order according to 
the amount spent for teachers' salaries, and then in order accord- 
ing to the amount spent for text-books, the two rankings would 
be identical; that the position of any city with reference to the 
others for one item will be the same for the other item (both being 
reduced to terms of the variabilities of the cost per pupil as units 
to allow comparison). 

A coefficient of — 100% would, per contra, mean that the city 



City School Expenditures 327 

which spent most for one item would spend the smallest amount 
for the other, that any degree above the average or median in the 
one would be accompanied by the same degree below the average 
or median for the other, and vice versa. A coefficient of + 62% 
would mean that (comparison being rendered fair here, as always, 
by reduction to the variabihties as units) any given station for 
one item would, on the whole, imply 62 hundredths of that sta- 
tion for the other. A coefficient of — 62% would, of course, mean 
that any position above the average for the one item would, on 
the whole, involve a position below the average for the other item 
equal to 62 hundredths of the amount the first was above the 
average. 

Table 104 gives the coefficients which were found on the cost 
per pupil basis. The first column gives the corrected coefficient ^ 
as determined from the coefficients found when the first year's fig- 
ures alone were used, when the second year's figures alone were 
used, and when the average for the two years was used (see col- 
umns 3, 4, and 2). The second column gives the coefiicients 
derived from the average of two years' figures; the third, the 
coefficients derived from the first year's figures from cities report- 
ing two years; the fourth, the coefficients derived from the second 
year's figures; and the fifth, the coefficients found when the figures 
for the fifty-eight cities reporting the first year were used. 

In the discussion which follows, the coefficients referred to are 
always the corrected coefficients, unless it is specifically stated 
that other coefficients are meant. I beheve that the corrected 
coefficient more nearly expresses the relationship which actually 
exists among the various items correlated than does any other 
figure.^ 

1 This correction is made by using the Spearman formulas for the correction of 
the Pearson Coefficient. See American Journal of Psychology for January, 1904. 

2 The true relationship between any two items in the budget for these cities is 
the relationship which would be found if we had perfect measures of the cities' 
tendencies to spend money for school; such, for instance, as their budgets for forty 



328 



Educational A dministration 



TABLE 104 
Pearson Coefficients of Correlation Calculated on the Cost per Pupil Basis 






Total Cost per Pupil correlated with; 
Teaching and Supervision 

Total Cost per Pupil correlated with 
Janitors' Salaries j 

Total Cost per Pupil correlated with 
Text-books and Supplies I 

Total Cost per Pupil correlated with' 
Fuel ! 

Total Cost per Pupil correlated with 
Repairs 

Teaching and Supervision correlated 
with Janitors' Salaries 

Teaching correlated with Text -books 
and Supplies 

Supervision correlated with Text- 
books and Supplies 

Supervision correlated with Repairs. . 

Supervision correlated with Teaching 

Supervision correlated with Fuel 

Janitors' Salaries correlated with 
Fuel 

Janitors' Salaries correlated with Re- 
pairs 

Repairs correlated with Fuel 



i-f i.ois 

+ .716 

+ -955 

2-H .522 

+ .246 

-f .746 

+ -737 

+ .869 

— .128 

+ .366 

+ .11 

+ .531 

+ .210 

+ .147 



Jl ni 2 >> O 



T3- 

_c o 






+.97 

-f .66 

+ .8s 

+ .45 

+ .24 

+ .64 

+ .63 

+ .69 
— .14 

+ .27 
-f .06 

+ .30 

+ .32 
+ .12 






g,^s 



2 3' 



+ .96 

+ .70 

+ .8s 

+ .50 

+ .47 

+ .63 

+ .76 

+ .57 
-f.i8 
+ .31 

-f.02 

-f.6i 

+ .32 
+ .21 






+ ■99 
+ .56 
+ .67 
+ .34 
+ .56 
+ .44 
+ •35 

+ .51 

— .09 
+ .05 
+ .04 

— .08 

+ .30 

— .001 



1 That this coefficient as corrected gives over 100% is due to the fact that the third decimal place 
is lacking in the coefficients from which the correction was made. 

2 The item "fuel" as reported for the two years is less definite than most of the other items, becaus3 
fuel bought, or at least fuel paid for, one year is often used the next year; consequently, only the second 
method given by Spearman for the correction of the Pearson coefficient is used. This method is based 
on the fact that an increase in the number of measures of each of the facts originally measured in- 
creases its accuracy. 

The first question which our coefficients enable us to answer 
concerns the relationship of the total cost per pupil to the prin- 
cipal items of the budget. Does an increased cost per pupil mean 

or fifty years. The effect of chance deviations of any single year from the cities' 
general tendencies is to bring the calculated correlation from its true value toward 
zero. By the Spearman formulae we estimate the true relationship (i) from the 
obtained relationship and the amount of deviation of one year's budget from an- 
other year's, or (2) from the difference between the relationship obtained from one 
year's budget and that from two or more years' budgets. For the theory of the 
correction see, in general, Thorndike, Mental and Social Measurements, pp. 128 and 
129, and in detail C. Spearman, on "The Proof and Measurement of Association 
between Two Things," American Journal of Psychology, January, 1904. 



City School Expenditures 329 

a proportionate increase in the amount spent for teaching and 
supervision, for janitors' salaries, for text-books and suppHes, for 
fuel, and for repairs; or is the relationship between the total cost 
per pupil and the various items of the budget closer for some than 
for others? Examining our coefficients we find that the relation- 
ship between the total cost per pupil and the cost for teaching 
and supervision is expressed by a coefficient of + 100%, i. e. the 
amount spent for teaching and supervision is determined by the 
total amount spent per pupil. If a small total amount per pupil 
is spent, we may expect a correspondingly small amount per 
pupil for teaching and supervision; if a large total amount 
per pupil is spent, we may expect a correspondingly large amount 
per pupil for teaching and supervision; if the cities were ranked in 
order on the basis of total amount spent per pupil, and then in 
order on the basis of the amount spent per pupil for teaching and 
supervision, we would expect to find that the rank of the cities 
would be the same for each item. The next closest relation- 
ship is that for text-books and supplies, which gives a coeffi- 
cient of + .955. The others are, in order, janitors' salaries, 
+ .716; fuel, -f .522; and repairs, + .246. In general, these re- 
lationships show that the amount spent per pupil for teaching 
and supervision, and for text-books and supplies, corresponds 
very closely to the total amount spent per pupil; if the cost per 
pupil is above the average we may expect that the amount spent 
per pupil will be high for these items, and any diminution in the 
total amount spent per pupil is likely to be accompanied by a 
smaller expenditure per pupil for these purposes. 

The coefficients found for janitors' salaries and fuel show a less 
close correspondence. From the relationship here we may infer 
that the rank of any city above or below the median in total cost 
per pupil might be compatible with various ranks for janitors' 
salaries or fuel, which would tend to be approximately three- 
fourths of the rank in total cost per pupil. 



330 



Educational Administration 



The item of repairs is least closely related with the total cost 
per pupil. This is as we might have expected. The fact that 
a school system is expensive does not increase the cost of repairing 
the buildings, except in so far as the labor necessary to do the 
work may cost more in those cities which are able to spend the 
large amount per pupil. We might expect the expensive city 
to keep its buildings in better repair than the poorer cities, which, 
with the difference in the cost of labor mentioned above, would 
seem to account for the coefficient of + .246. 

The fact that we find a direct relationship between the total 
cost per pupil and the cost per pupil for each of the principal 
items of expenditure makes it clear that, in general, an expensive 
school system is expensive because it spends more money for 
everything, and that an inexpensive school system is one that 
retrenches all along the line. However, the fact that certain of 
the items are less closely related to the total cost per pupil than 
others does indicate that these items will probably not be found 
to increase or decrease in a proportion equal to that of the items 

TABLE 105 



Average (or the five cities near- 
est the median 

First group of five cities above 
the median group 

Second group of five cities. . . . 

The two cities having the great- 
est expense per pupil 

Average for the five cities near- 
est the median 

First group of five cities below 
the median 

Second group of five cities. . . . 

The three cities havmg the 
smallest expense per pupil. . 



Q, 


CS 


g 


l.i 


1 


a 












<^ 






a 


.a c3 




c > 


a 




^^ 


|. 


1 

3 




1 









in 


^^ 


c 






H 






t— > 


H 




$29.00 


$17.80 


$2.20 


$20.00 


$1.90 


$1.80 


$1.90 


3 1 . 00 


I9-20 


.3.20 


22.40 


1.80 


i.,30 


1.90 


34.IO 


21.80 


2.30 


24. 10 


2.20 


1.80 


2.20 


51-70 


30.80 


S-40 


36.20 


2.80 


4.80 


2.20 


29.00 


17.80 


2.20 


20.00 


1.90 


1.80 


1.90 


27.70 


18.20 


1.30 


1Q.50 


1.90 


1.60 


1.50 


25.50 


15.70 


2.40 


18.10 


I 50 


1 .60 


1.40 


20,80 


13.60 


1.60 


15 . 20 


1 . 10 


1. 10 


1.50 



$1 .60 



1.30 
1.30 



1 .60 



1.30 
.90 



.60 



City School Expenditures 331 

showing a closer relationship, nor in proportion to the increase 
in the total cost per pupil. 

Table 105 shows just how an increased or a decreased total 
cost per pupil affects the principal items of the budget. The 
figures given refer to dollars, and are calculated from the average 
amount spent for each item for two years. The data are from 
thirty cities reporting for the school years 1 902-1 903 and 1903- 
1904. 

Explanation of Table 105 

The first line of the table gives the average total cost per pupil 
and the average amount spent for each of the principal items of 
the budget, for the five cities which have a total cost per pupil 
nearest the median total cost per pupil. The next line gives the 
same information for the group of five cities having the next 
highest total cost per pupil. The next two lines are explained in 
like manner. The fifth line repeats the first line. The sixth line 
gives the average total cost per pupil and the average expenditure 
for the several items of expenditure for the five cities which have 
the next lowest total cost per pupil below the median group. The 
next two lines are explained in like manner. 

From this Table 105 the relationships already shown by the 
coefficients of correlation given in Table 104 are made clear. In 
general, the table shows that an increased cost per pupil means 
an increased expenditure for each item, and that a decreased total 
cost per pupil is accompanied by a decrease in the amount spent 
per pupil for everything. An increase of two dollars in the total 
cost per pupil (see fine 2) is accompanied by an increase of $2.40 
per pupil in amount spent for teaching and supervision, and a 
decrease in janitors' salaries, text-books and suppfies, and repairs, 
while fuel remains the same. In the next group, however, with 
an increase in total cost per pupil above the median group of 



332 Educational Administration 

$5.10, teaching and supervision show an increase of $4.10, jani- 
tors' salaries and fuel show an increase of thirty cents each, text- 
books and supphes remain the same, and repairs decrease thirty 
cents per pupil. The next group, with an increased total cost per 
pupil of $22.70, gives an increase for teaching and supervision of 
$16.20, an increase for janitors' salaries of ninety cents, an in- 
crease for text-books and supplies of $3, an increase for fuel of 
thirty cents, and an increase for repairs of forty cents per pupil. 

By examining the part of the table giving the expenditures for 
groups of cities spending less than the median group, we find the 
decrease in all items more constant than was the increase for the 
cities spending more than was spent by the median group. The 
very fact that the city spends less than the average probably 
means that it would be very difficult to keep the expenditure in 
any one item up to the average without eliminating other neces- 
sary expenditures. On the other hand, a city spending more 
than the average can put the additional money in any place 
where the demand, of one kind or another, may be strongest. 

Let us return again to a consideration of the relationships 
given in Table 104. The relationship ( + .746) between teaching 
and supervision and janitors' salaries tends to confirm the obser- 
vation made above with reference to the relation between these 
items and the total cost per pupil. We may not expect janitors' 
salaries to correspond so closely to the total cost per pupil as do 
teachers' salaries. Apparently there are causes other than those 
(the cost per pupil of teaching and supervision) which influence 
the amount per pupil spent for janitors' salaries. 

The coefficients for teaching and for supervision with text- 
books and supplies (+ .737 and + .869, respectively), indicate a 
closer relationship between the cost per pupil for supervision 
and for text-books and supplies than exists between the cost per 
pupil for teaching and for text-books and supplies. 

That the relationship between supervision and repairs is 



City School Expenditures 333 

negative (+.128) might seem to imply that high-priced super- 
vision means better care of buildings. The coefficient of super- 
vision correlated with teachers' salaries is — .366. This is rather 
smaller than one might have expected. It is rather natural to 
suppose that high-priced supervisors would want high-priced 
teachers, and that a city spending a large amount per pupil for 
teachers would spend a correspondingly large amount for super- 
vision. The small coefficient found for supervision correlated 
with fuel (+.11), seems to indicate that while greater expense 
for supervisors increases the amount spent for text-books and 
supplies (see coefficient for supervision with text-books and 
supplies), it has little in common with the expense for fuel. 

The relationship between janitors' salaries and fuel, and jani- 
tors' salaries and repairs, is expressed by coefficients of + .531 
and + .219, respectively. It will be remembered that fuel is 
more closely correlated with the total cost per pupil than is 
janitors' salaries. This being true, it would seem that the corre- 
spondence between janitors' salaries and fuel might be accounted 
for by the fact that they are both determined largely by the total 
amount spent per pupil. It was found also that supervision and 
repairs show a negative relationship, and here we find a positive 
relationship between janitors' salaries and repairs nearly equal 
to the relationship between repairs and the total cost per pupil. 
Apparently costly supervision means more for economy in repairs 
than does a large amount per pupil spent for janitors' salaries. 

The next table (No. 106) gives the coefficients which were cal- 
culated on the ''per cent of total" basis. 

These coefficients show what effect the spending of a certain 
proportion of the money available for one item has on the propor- 
tion spent for other items. 



334 



Educational Administration 



TABLE io6 

Pearson Coefficients of Cor?.elation Calculated on the Per Cent of Total Basis 



Teaching and Supervision 

correlated with Janitors' 

Salaries _. . 

Teaching correlated with 

Text-books and Supplies. . 
Janitors' Salaries correlated 

with Fuel 

Janitors' Salaries correlated 

with Repairs . 

Supervision correlated with 

Text-books and Supplies. . 
Supervision correlated with 

Repairs 

Supervision correlated with 

Teaching 

Supervision correlated with 

Fuel 

Repairs correlated with Fuel 







-a -a 


"O 


X)."" 




-a « 












1i? 


efficient deriv 
om the averag 
first and seco 
ars' figures (3 
cities) 


efficient deriv 
om first year 
?ures for citie 
reporting two 
Jars' figures (3 
cities) 


<~> <n aj 


efficient deriv 
om first year' 
ires for all cit 
reporting (58 
cities) 


o^- 


a--o^ 


c3-« - 


&&S 


c3-^ 





356 


—•30 


— .25 





43 


-.48 


— 


746 


—.46 


—.09 


- 


59 


— .12 


- 


024 


—.03 


+ .12 


- 


3:^ 


+ .26 


+ 


155 


+.17 


+ .12 


+ 


48 


+ .13 


4- 


203 


+.17 


+ .17 


+ 


27 


+ .01 


- 


409 


—.28 


— .06 


- 


38 


+ .03 


- 


9S3 


— .68 


— .54 


- 


69 


-.67 


— 


333 


— .20 


— 17 


— 


03 


— .02 


+ 


195 


— .03 


+ .003 


+ 


12 


+ .23 



In this table the significant thing is not so much the size 
of the positive or negative coefficients as the order, the relative 
closeness of relationship or opposition among the various items. 
Rearranging the table on this basis and calling the median rela- 
tionship zero, and transmuting the others on this basis, we 
have Table 107. 

TABLE 107 



Supervision correlated with Teaching 

Teaching " " Text-books and Supplies 

Supervision " " Repairs _. . . 

Teaching and Supervision correlated with Janitors' Salaries 

Supervision correlated with Fuel 

Janitors' Salaries correlated with Fuel 

" " " " Repairs 

Repairs correlated with Fuel 

Supervision correlated with Text-books and Supplies 







—.983 1 




746 1 


- — 


409 


— 


356 


— 


333 


— 


024 


+ 


155 


+ 


19s 


+ 


203 



Transmuted 
Coefficients 



— .650 

— .413 

— .076 

— .023 

o 
+ .309 
+ .488 
+ .52S 
+ .536 



I believe that the transmuted coefficients more nearly express 
the true relationship than do those originally found, for we must 



City School Expenditures 335 

have expected a negative relationship between any two items, 
because a larger proportion than usual spent for one item leaves 
a smaller proportion of the total to be divided among the other 
items of the budget. So far as the coefficients obtained enable 
us to judge, this negative relationship, due simply to the fact 
that a larger proportion of money than usual spent for any one 
item leaves a smaller proportion for other items, is approximately 
the relationship half-way between the extremes — the relationship 
between supervision and fuel, — .333. If we call this relation- 
ship zero, the transmuted relationships give us, as nearly as we 
can obtain them, the relationships between the other items freed 
from this constant error. 

Let us consider the transmuted coefficients. Suppose a city 
spends more than the usual proportion for supervision, what 
other items may we expect to find receiving an unusual propor- 
tion of the money spent? The coefficient of + .536 between 
supervision and text-books and suppUes indicates that the proba- 
bihty is that a city which spends a large proportion for one of 
these items will spend a large proportion for the other — that we 
may expect to find some cities unusual both in respect to the 
proportion spent for supervision and that spent for text-books 
and supplies. The positive coefficients between janitors' salaries, 
fuel, and repairs, no matter which two are taken together, shows 
that in cities where one of these items is proportionately large, 
the others will probably receive more than the usual proportion. 
Comparing these coefficients with those found for teaching and 
supervision with janitors' salaries and supervision with fuel, 
it is suggested that some boards of education are interested 
particularly in the physical side — the buildings, their care, etc. — 
and that the over-emphasis on this side means less money for 
the purely educational activities. The very large negative co- 
efficient for supervision correlated with teachers' salaries would 
doubtless be reduced if more accurate reports of the amounts 



^^6 Educational Administration 

spent for each of these items were available. It is in this relation- 
ship between the two items that any mistakes in reporting in 
either an amount which really belonged to the other would be 
most apparent. Any amount reported as teaching which should 
have been given as supervision would make the amount for teach- 
ing too large and the amount for supervision too small, and the 
opposite would be true if an amount which should have been 
reported as teaching were given as supervision. In either case 
such mistakes would make this particular coefhcient show a more 
pronounced negative relationship than actually exists. Such mis- 
takes would not, however, have a like effect on other coefhcients, 
where the increase or decrease in the item of supervision or teach- 
ing has no effect on the other item correlated. The fact that the 
amounts given for teaching or supervision may in one case be 
slightly too large and in another slightly too small, means that, 
except when the two items themselves are correlated, the mistake 
in one direction would be offset by the mistake in the other. 

The relationship between teachers' salaries and text-books 
and supplies ( — 413) is particularly interesting when contrasted 
with the relationship between supervision and text-books and 
supplies (-f- .536). If a city spends an undue proportion for super- 
vision we may expect then an unusually large proportion will be 
spent for text-books and suppKes; while the opposite condition 
holds for the proportion spent for teaching. Possibly the relation- 
ship between supervision and text-books and supplies is simply 
that the highly paid supervisors are able to get appropriations 
for books and supplies, and that poorly paid supervisors do not 
have much to do with the actual use or waste of supplies fur- 
nished. On the other hand if there is anything that a good 
teacher wants, it is plenty of books and supplies of the right 
quality, consequently it seems strange that there should be this 
opposition in the relative proportions spent for these two items. 
However, expensive teachers may effect economy by the proper 



City School Expenditures 337 

use of materials, and poorly paid teachers may be the most care- 
less. There is nothing that hurts a book so little as using it 
properly, and it is conceivable that the best teachers may actually 
use fewer supplies than those with less ability. 

Table 108 gives the correlation of the first and second year's 
figures on both the cost per pupil and per cent of total bases. 
These coefficients give us some idea of the relative stability of 
the various items of the budget. They are used also in making 
the Spearman correction. 

TABLE 108 

First and second year's figures correlated. Thirty cities reporting for the school 
years 1902-03 and 1903-04. 



I — Cost per Pupil Basis 

Total cost per pupil correlated with total cost per pupil + 

Supervision and teaching correlated with supervision and teaching + 

Supervision " " supervision -j- 

Teachers' salaries " " teachers' salaries -|- 

Janitors' " " " janitors' " -f 

Text-books and supplies " " text-books and supplies + 

Fuel " " fuel + 

Repairs " " " repairs . . + 

II — Per Cent of Total Basis 



Supervision and teaching correlated with supervision and teaching + • S6 

Supervision " " supervision + • 58 

Teachers' salaries " " teachers' salaries +51 

Janitors' " " " janitors' " -j- .80 

Text-books and supplies " " text-books and suppHes + -65 

Fuel . " " fuel -f .34 

Repairs " " repairs + ■ 54 

The total cost per pupil gives a coefficient of + .92, showing 
that the amount per child spent does not vary much from year 
to year — the expensive city remains so, and the city spending 
little does not suddenly devote a much larger proportion of its 
revenues for schools. Almost as constant as the total cost per 
pupil are the amounts spent for janitors' salaries, text-books and 
supplies, teaching and supervision, giving, as they do, coefficients 



338 Educational Administration 

of + .90, + .89, + .89, respectively. The items of teaching and 
supervision, when taken alone, show greater variation (coeffi- 
cients of +.79 and + .69, respectively), due largely to the fact 
that, in reporting, amounts properly belonging to one item were 
reported under the other, rather than in a change of policy as to 
the relative amount to be allowed for teaching and for super- 
vision. 

As one might expect, the amount spent for repairs varies 
more than any of the items mentioned above (a coefficient of 
+ .34 was found). A large amount spent for repairs one year 
means a smaller amount the next year, rather than an equally 
large amount. That the coefficient for fuel is as low as + .17, 
might seem to indicate that fuel in excess of that which is used 
is often bought and paid for out of a single year's budget, rather 
than that there is any very great difference in the value of the 
fuel actually consumed each year. 

When we come to consider the proportion of the total which 
is spent for any one item for two successive years, we find the 
variability rather greater than for the amount spent per pupil. 
This is due to the fact that, while the amount per pupil spent for 
any one purpose remains fairly constant, any additional expendi- 
ture for some new item which increases the gross amount spent, 
or any diminution in any item of expenditure, affects the propor- 
tion which this item is of the total amount spent. It is interesting 
to note that in the relative constancy with which a given propor- 
tion is spent for any item, janitors' salaries lead, followed by 
text-books and supplies, supervision, teaching and supervision, 
repairs, teaching, and fuel. 

Table 109 gives the coefficients for the total cost per pupil 
correlated with the per cent which each item is of the total. 
These coefficients tell us what effect a larger or smaller expendi- 
ture per pupil may be expected to have on the proportion which 
is spent for any one item of the budget. 



City School Expenditures 339 

TABLE 109 

Pearson Coefficients of Correlation 

The total cost per pupil correlated with the per cent which each item is of the 
total. The average cost per pupil and per cent of total for two years is used as the 
basis of calculation. 

Total cost per pupil correlated with per cent of total spent for: 

Teaching and Supervision — .05 

Janitors' Salaries — .06 

Text-books and Supplies + ■ 35 

Fuel — .22 

Repairs + • 13 

Apparently the total cost per pupil may not be expected to 
affect the proportion spent for teaching and supervision and for 
janitors' salaries. Cities spending a large amount per pupil do 
not necessarily spend any greater proportion of their money for 
these purposes than do cities spending a smaller amount per child. 
(The coefficients of — .05 and — .06 are so small as to be practi- 
cally neghgible.) On the other hand, the positive coefficients of 
+ .35 for text-books and supplies indicates that there is a direct 
relationship between the total amount spent per pupil and the 
proportion which is spent for this purpose. We may expect an 
expensive city to spend a larger proportion of its money for text- 
books and supplies than does the poorer city, even though we 
may infer from this coefficient that the increase in the proportion 
spent for this purpose will not be proportionate to the increased 
cost per pupil. The negative coefficient for fuel shows that the 
proportion spent for fuel decreases as the total cost per pupil 
increases. The most expensive city will probably spend a smaller 
proportion of its money for fuel than a poor city. That the pro- 
portion spent for repairs should give a positive coefficient of + .13 
when correlated with the total cost per pupil seems to indicate 
that there is some tendency for the more expensive cities to spend 
a larger proportion for repairs than the less expensive city — 
possibly the cities spending the greater amount per pupil do keep 
their buildings in better repair. 



340 Educational Administration 

Table no gives the average salary received by elementary and 
by high school teachers, and the average daily wage received by 
carpenters, bricklayers, and day laborers. This information was 
calculated from two years' data for the thirty cities reporting for 
the school years 1 902-1 903 and 1 903-1 904. The figure given for 
elementary and high school teachers' salaries was derived by 
finding first the average salary paid to each class of teachers for 
each year separately by dividing the gross amount spent for each 
item by the number of teachers (see form sent to superintend- 
ents), and then the average for the two years was taken. In a 
similar manner, from the report given by city superintendents on 
the blank filled out by them, the average wage of carpenters, 
bricklayers, and day laborers was calculated. The information 
concerning the daily wage of carpenters, bricklayers, and day 
laborers is probably less exact than w^e might wish, but suffi- 
ciently accurate, I think, to show whether or not any relationship 
exists between the amounts paid to this class of laborers and to 
teachers. It is for the purpose last mentioned that these data are 
given. Coefiicients will be given to show what relationship exists 
between the wages paid carpenters, bricklayers, and day laborers 
and the salaries paid teachers. 

Before we give the coefficients showing the relationship be- 
tween teachers' salaries and the wages paid carpenters, brick- 
layers, and day laborers, it is interesting to note the variability 
in teachers' salaries, as shown by the table given above. The 
average salary of the elementary school teachers varies from 
$350.60 in city No. 27 to $691.30 — almost twice as much — in 
city No. 8. The average salary paid high school teachers varies 
from $558 in city No. 48 to $1332.80 — almost two and a half 
times as much — in city No. 30. Whatever we may believe about 
the difference in the cost of living, no one would be willing to 
maintain that the cost of living in one of the cities is double that 
in another of those covered by this study. In no case does the 



City School Expenditures 

TABLE no 



341 





1 


b 


. 


0) 

to 


^„ 


G 








il 




"0 
1 




IF 


> 




^•0 




<; 


< 


< 


< 


< 


5 


$ 955-5 


$643-1 








6 


747 


I 


407 


5 


$2.50 


$3-25 


$1-75 


8 


836 


4 


691 


6 


2.50 


4 


00 


2 


00 


13 


930 




540 


8 


2.62 


3 


75 




75 


14 


820 


8 


425 


9 


3.00 


4 


50 




00 


15 


747 


9 


S2^ 


2 


3.00 


4 


00 




87 


16 


770 


5 


386 


4 


3.12 


4 


68 




50 


20 


736 


8 


537 


2 


2-75 


4 


00 




50 


27 


563 


3 


350 


6 












28 


931 


2 


460 


4 


2-75 


3 


50 




50 


29 


760 


9 


452 


5 


2.50 


3 


25 




75 


30 


1,332 


8 


574 




3 50 


4 


65 




25 


31 


877 


6 


373 


6 


2.50 


3 


50 




62 


32 


801 


8 


538 


I 


3 25 


4 


25 




00 


34 


819 


7 


513 


2 


2.50 


3 


00 




50 


35 


702 


8 


482 


5 


3.00 


4 


00 




50 


36 


603 


3 


487 


5 


3.87 


3 


50 




50 


37 


657 


I 


381 


7 


2.90 


4 


00 




85 


39 


724 


9 


418 


I 


2.50 


3 


25 




50 


40 


732 


9 


366 


2 


2.50 


2 


50 




50 


41 


66s 


2 


429 


I 


2.75 


4 


50 




75 


42 


776 


5 


486 


I 


2.62 


3 


30 




50 


43 


805 


4 


499 




2.60 


3 


55 




75 


45 


835 


8 


504 


I 


2.62 


4 


00 




93 


48 


558 




415 


2 


3.00 


3 


75 




50 


52 


876 


7 


594 


5 


2.85 


4 


00 




50 


54 


884 


2 


557 


5 


3-37 


4 


25 




75 


55 


645 


8 


399 


6 


2.75 


3 


50 




50 


56 


887 


5 


557 




3-50 


3 


67 




45 


57 


1,124 


I 


662 


7 


3-50 


4.70 


2-25 



highest daily wage paid a carpenter, bricklayer, or day laborer, 
as reported, equal double that paid to the poorest paid laborer 
in any one of these occupations. 

The coefficients given above show an increased direct relation- 
ship between teachers' salaries and the daily wages paid artisans 
and day laborers as we go from carpenters, to bricklayers, to 



342 Educational Administration 

TABLE III 

Pearson Coefficients of Correlation 

Salaries of teachers correlated with the daily wages of carpenters, bricklayers, 
and day laborers. The average salary of teachers and the average daily wage for 
two years are used as the basis of calculation. 

Elementary Teachers' Salaries correlated with: 

Carpenters' Wages + . 28 

Bricklayers' Wages + -44 

Day Laborers' Wages +-57 

High School Teachers' Salaries correlated with: 

Carpenters' Wages + • 25 

Bricklayers' Wages + .41 

Day Laborers' Wages + • 57 

High School Teachers' Salaries correlated with Elementary 

Teachers' Salaries + • 63 

day laborers. If the wages paid to day laborers are an index of 
the cost of living, we may infer that cost of living does enter as a 
determining factor in the amount paid to teachers; not that the 
amount of salary paid to the teacher corresponds exactly to the 
cost of living, but that the tendency will be for cities where living 
is high to pay rather more than the average salary, and for cities 
where the cost of living is below the average, to pay its teachers 
less than the average. 

TABLE 112 

Coefficients of correlation calculated on the cost per pupil basis, the figure used 
in finding the cost per pupil being half-way between the average number of pupils 
in daily attendance and the average daily enrollment. P^orty-nine cities, reporting 
for the year 1902-1903. 



Total cost per pupil correlated with Teaching and Supervision + 

" " " " Janitors' Salaries + 

" '' " " " Text-books and Supplies -|- 

Tcaching and Supervision " " Janitors' Salaries + 

Teaching " " Text-books and Supplies + 

Supervision. " " " " " -j- 

" Repairs + 

" an Teaching -f 

Janitors' Salaries " " P\iel -f 

" " Repairs -f 



(( 



City School Expenditures 343 

If these coefficients are compared with those given for the first 
year's figures, they will be found to agree in the main with them. 
Whatever variation is found is due largely to the fact that on the 
basis on which this table is computed, nine cities had to be 
omitted because they did not furnish the necessary data for 
the average daily enrollment. 

Table 113 which follows, shows the relation between the pro- 
portion of pupils attending elementary and high schools, and 
the proportion of the total amount spent for salaries which is 
used for the salaries of the two classes of teachers. The table 
also gives the number of students enrolled per teacher, which 
offers another basis for comparison as between elementary and 
high school teachers. The number of pupils as given in this table 
is in every case the average as found from two years' total enroll- 
ment figures. In determining the number of teachers, and in 
determining the amount of money spent for each group, kinder- 
garten teachers and teachers of special subjects, such as nature 
study, manual training, etc., are counted as elementary school 
teachers. 

Explanation of Table 113 

The first column gives the average total number of pupils 
enrolled in all day schools; the second, the number enrolled in 
elementary schools, including kindergartens; the third, the num- 
ber enrolled in high schools. The fourth, fifth, and sixth columns 
give total amount spent for all day school teachers' salaries, the 
amount spent for elementary school teachers' salaries, including 
the salaries of kindergarten and special teachers, and the amount 
spent for high school teachers' salaries, respectively. The sev- 
enth and eighth columns give the per cent of the total number 
of pupils enrolled who are enrolled in the elementary school, and 
the per cent of the total amount spent for teachers' salaries which 



344 Educational Administration 

is spent for the salaries of elementary school teachers. The ninth 
and tenth columns give the same information for high schools. 
The eleventh and twelfth columns give the number of pupils 
enrolled per teacher in both elementary and high schools. 

The proportion of the total expenditures, or of the amount 
spent for salaries, which is spent for the teachers of one class or 
the other has little significance, except as we are able to compare 
it with the proportion of the total number of pupils which are 
enrolled in each class of school. That a city spends i8% of the 
total amount spent for maintenance and operation for high 
school teachers' salaries, means one thing when the city enrolls 
17% of its total number of pupils in high schools, and quite 
another thing when the city enrolls 8.5% of the total number in 
high schools. 

The number of pupils enrolled in the elementary schools varies 
from 71% to 96% of the total number of pupils enrolled, while 
the money spent for the salaries of elementary school teachers 
varies from 56% to 91% of the total amount spent for salaries of 
day school teachers. The median for elementary teachers' sal- 
aries is 78.8% of the total amount spent for salaries, while the 
median for the enrollment in elementary schools is 90.1% of the 
total enrollment in day schools. 

For high schools the variabihty for the proportion of total 
enrollment has a range of from 4% to 29%, while the high school 
teachers receive from 9% to 44% of the money devoted to 
teachers' salaries. The median for high school teachers is 21.2% 
of the total amount spent for salaries, while the median for the 
enrollment in high schools is 9.9% of the total enrollment in day 
schools. In seventeen out of twenty-nine cases, the proportion 
of the total amount spent for salaries which is spent for high 
school teachers' salaries is two, three or even four times the pro- 
portion which the high school enrollment is of the total enroll- 



City School Expenditures 345 

ment. Of the remaining twelve cases, seven show a proportionate 
expenditure for high school teachers' salaries almost double the 
high school's proportion of the total number of pupils. 

The number of pupils enrolled per teacher in the elementary 
schools varies from 35 to 54, while in the high schools the number 
varies from 17 to 43. The median number of pupils per teacher 
is 44 for the elementary schools, and 27 for the high schools. In 
general, the enrollment per teacher for the elementary schools 
is about one and one-half times the enrollment per teacher in the 
high schools. 

If we may take the amount spent for salaries as an index of the 
relative cost of high and elementary school education, we must 
conclude from the data given above that secondary education 
costs two, three, or even four times as much per pupil as elemen- 
tary education. What we would like to have is the expenditures 
for high schools separate from those for elementary schools in 
order to be entirely certain of the relative cost of elementary and 
secondary education. I believe, however, that the item of 
salaries is a good index, first, because the item of salaries forms 
from 60% to 80% of the entire budget; and, second, because 
other expenditures for books, supplies, and apparatus are enough 
larger, in proportion to the number of pupils enrolled, in the 
high school to offset an expenditure of the same amount per pupil 
for janitors' salaries, fuel, repairs, etc. 



346 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 113 



>> 






2 »-( 

0) 


Li 


or Ele- 
Teach- 
/erage 
irs 


«3^ 





■^■^ 


W(5 


.s '^^ 


^ 


-^^^ 


-^"52! 


'0 
6 


lit: 

1*1 


_ i2 


s 


Ills 


Iff 


till 


5 


4,286 


3,796 


490 


86,850 


65,350 


2I,SOO 


6 


2,200 


1,911 


289 


31,128 


22,396 


8,732 


8 


2,436 


2,139 


297 


39,570 


30,845 


8,725 


13 


4,049 


3,765 


284 


60,395 


51,545 


8,850 


14 


1,738 


1,598 


140 


25,932 


28,957 


4,975 


15 


5,587 


5038 


549 


75,531 


62,137 


13,394 


16 


1,220 


1,136 


84 


17,285 


13,432 


3,853 


20 


2,969 


2,662 


307 


42,436 


33,184 


9,252 


27 


2,167 


1,831 


336 


22,595 


16,413 


6,182 


28 


2,231 


2,143 


88 


28,583 


23,927 


4,656 


30 


3,747 


3,428 


319 


76,185 


59,628 


16,557 


31 


3,651 


3,433 


218 


43,992 


36,193 


7,799 


32 


2,999 


2,728 


271 


41,268 


35,268 


6,000 


34 


1,867 


1,684 


183 


30,843 


24,285 


6,558 


35 


5,162 


4,407 


755 


82,351 


66,891 


15,460 


36 


1,633 


1,350 


283 


24,439 


18,102 


6,337 


37 


3,255 


2,886 


369 


30,491 


23,262 


7,229 


39 


1,981 


1,641 


340 


30,652 


22,362 


8,290 


40 


2,138 


1,510 


628 


30,963 


17,402 


13,561 


41 


4,533 


4,022 


511 


54,086 


42,803 


11,283 


42 


4,214 


3,798 


416 


48,937 


37,687 


11,250 


43 


3,094 


2,636 


458 


46,301 


36,244 


10,057 


45 


4,142 


3,867 


275 


60,237 


48,537 


11,700 


48 


1,161 


1,098 


63 


12,099 


10,424 


1,675 


52 


4,978 


4,680 


298 


58,192 


50,555 


7,637 


54 


1,949 


1,803 


146 


38,300 


31,650 


6,650 


55 


2,440 


2,201 


239 


21,762 


18,200 


3-562 


56 


2,126 


2,029 


97 


39,725 


36,175 


3,550 


57 


3,072 


2,692 


380 


74,495 


55,645 


18,850 



City School Expenditures 



347 



TABLE 113 {Continued) 



u 


he Total 
Pupils 
rolled in 
Schools; 
ir Two 


he Total ' 
ent for 
hat is, 
lement- 
s' Sala- 
: for Two 
s 


he Total 
Pupils 
•oiled in 
s; Aver- 
3 Years 


he Total 
ent for 
hat is, 
High 
ichers' 
;rage for 
•ars 




J£.£? 


1-4 

1 
1 






















1^1 




5 


88.5 


75-2 


II-5 


24.8 


43 


22 


6 


86 


9 


72.0 


13 -I 


28.0 


50 


25 


8 


^1 


7 


77-9 


12.3 


22.1 


47 


27 


13 


93 




85 3 


7. 


14.7 


38 


30 


14 


91 


8 


80.9 


8.2 


19. I 


35 


23 


15 


90 


I 


82.3 


9.9 


17.7 


48 


31 


16 


93 


I 


77.6 


6.9 


22.3 


35 


17 


20 


89 


6 


78.3 


10.4 


21.7 


49 


28 


27 


84 


4 


72.6 


IS. 6 


27.4 


47 


31 


28 


96 


I 


83.7 


3.9 


16.3 


44 


18 


30 


91 


4 


78.2 


8.6 


21.8 


38 


26 


31 


94 


I 


82.2 


5.9 


17.8 


38 


24 


32 


90 


9 


85.4 


9.1 


14.6 


47 


36 


34 


90 


I 


78.8 


9.9 


21 .2 


39 


23 


35 


85 


4 


81.2 


14.6 


18.8 


38 


34 


36 


82 


8 


74.2 


17.2 


25.8 


42 


27 


37 


88 


5 


76.3 


II-5 


23-7 


54 


34 


39 


82 


9 


72.8 


17. 1 


27.2 


2,1 


30 


40 


70 


6 


56.2 


29.4 


43-8 


49 


34 


41 


?>B> 


8 


79.1 


II. 2 


20.9 


47 


30 


42 


90 


2 


77.0 


9.8 


23.0 


56 


29 


43 


85 


3 


78.3 


14.7 


21.7 


40 


36 


45 


93- 


4 


80.6 


6.6 


19.4 


43 


^9 . 


48 


94. 


7 


86.1 


5-3 


13-9 


48 


21 


52 


94- 





86.9 


6. 


13 I 


50 


35 


54 


92. 


5 


82.6 


7-S 


17.4 


35 


20 


55 


90. 


2 


83.6 


9.8 


16.4 


54 


43 


56 


95- 


4 


91. 1 


4.6 


8.9 


46 


24 


57 


87. 


7 


74-7 


12.3 


25-3 


38 


22 



34^ Educational Administration 

CONCLUSION 

This section will give a brief general summary of the results 
which have already been obtained, and some practical suggestions 
which grow out of these facts. First, with regard to variability, 
it will be remembered that the cost per pupil for the main- 
tenance and operation of schools in the cities considered varies 
from $9 to $5 5. That this variation in the total cost per pupil 
is not due entirely to the relative wealth or poverty of the differ- 
ent communities is shown conclusively when we know that the 
cost of schools in cities in the United States varies from 6% to 
46% of the total city expenditure. An equally striking varia- 
bility is found in the cost per pupil for each of the principal items 
of expense. Even when cities spending about the same amount 
per pupil are considered, it is found that the distribution of the 
money among the several items seems not to show anything 
like the degree of uniformity which might be expected. It is 
found that the percentage of the total cost of maintenance 
and operation which is spent for teaching and supervision varies 
from 44% to 82%; and what possibly seems more astonishing is 
the fact that the city spending the smallest proportion for teach- 
ing and supervision, spends the smallest total amount per pupil. 
Janitors' salaries amount to from 3% to 9% of the budget; one 
city spends 3% of its money for fuel and another spends 12% for 
the same purpose; text-books and supplies cost from 1% to 13% 
of the total cost of maintenance and operation. 

Fuel costs three times as much per pupil in one city as in 
another. The expenditure per pupil for the salaries of high school 
teachers varies from one and one half to four times the cost per 
pupil for salaries of teachers in the elementary schools. 

In our consideration of relationships we found that an expen- 
sive school system is one that spends more than the usual amount 
for all of the principal items of expense. A large positive relation- 



City School Expenditures 349 

ship exists between the proportion spent for supervision and the 
proportion spent for text-books and supplies. A lack of relation- 
ship between the total cost per pupil and the proportion which 
is spent for teaching and supervision seems to indicate that 
additional expenditures may not mean, as they should, a greater 
proportion for those items which count most for the efhciency of 
the schools. 

These and the many other facts which are given above con- 
cerning the variability and interrelation of the principal items 
of expense for schools, prove conclusively that the problem of 
the business administration of city school systems is not only a 
real and vital one, but also that we may expect that the schools 
will increase in efficiency when the money devoted to public 
education is distributed among the various items in the best 
possible way. As has been stated, our final test can only be 
found by testing the pupils in the schools in order to rate different 
systems for efficiency, and then we must conclude that those 
cities which get the best results for a given expenditure per pupil 
are the cities which properly distribute their mioney. However, 
before any such comparison among the various cities can be 
made, we must have more detailed information with regard to 
the way in which the money is used. If we may not ask city 
superintendents or boards of education to report their expend- 
itures according to a certain fixed form, it does seem that we 
might insist that their reports tell us for just what purposes the 
money is spent. A report which gave the various items of ex- 
pense in detail would enable any one to compare cities according 
to whatever classification seemed best. Nor would such reports 
be without their value to the persons making them. If the admin- 
istrator of schools is to secure additional money, either for pur- 
poses for which money is already used, or for any new field of 
activity, he can have no better argument than to be able to show 
just what results are obtained in his own and other cities from a 



350 Educational Administration 

given expenditure. Suppose, for example, that a superintendent 
wishes to introduce manual training or domestic science; he will 
be met immediately by the statement that these ''fads" are 
expensive and not at all necessary as a part of public education. 
Now, if it were possible for him to show from the reports of other 
cities that the additional expenditure was comparatively small, 
and that results obtained in the way of retaining pupils in school 
were considerable, he could make an argument which would 
have some weight. 

If the greatest economy is to be had, it is essential that the 
accounting should show just how much money is spent for each 
item, and, within a system itself, how various schools compare. 
It should be possible for the administrative officer to tell just 
what the cost per pupil is for each school within the system, and 
to compare the relative cost with the relative efficiency as found 
by testing the pupils of each school. No great corporation would 
to-day continue to spend money for purposes for which no results 
could be shown, and no school system should so report its expen- 
ditures that it is impossible to tell how much the educational 
policies cost which it advocates and carries out. 

It seems hardly right to expect that a superintendent whose 
time is already overcrowded, and who has as his assistant a clerk 
worth $500 a year, should be asked or expected to originate or 
carry out any such policy of accounting as has been suggested 
above. But when we recall again the great variability which is 
found for those items of expense which might be expected to be 
fairly constant, we feel that it is not out of place to suggest that 
the salary of a competent business agent or director might be paid 
out of the savings which would be made by the proper administra- 
tion of the business affairs of the schools, and that the efficiency 
of the schools might be increased as the result of the proper dis- 
tribution of the money spent. When the best judgment is used 
in the purchase and use of supplies and equipment as well as in 



City School Expenditures 351 

the selection of teachers and supervisors of instruction, when the 
money which is spent for schools is properly distributed among 
the various items of the budget, when expenditures are shown in 
reports in connection with the results obtained, then our schools 
will be found to have improved in efficiency, and then they will 
be able to command the respect and increased support of the 
community. 



§ 23- Expenditures for Schools in Relation to Other 
Municipal Expenditures 

The fiscal problem in education involves not only a considera- 
tion of the proper administration of the funds set aside for schools, 
but also the possible increase in revenue devoted to education. 
The greater demand made upon our public schools, due to the 
development of superior facilities for the type of education which 
has long been thought necessary and to the very great increase 
in the number and kind of activities undertaken by our schools, 
has led everywhere to an increase in school expenditures. The 
study of the fiscal problem when viewed merely from the stand- 
point of expenditure may be summed up in an accurate and 
detailed statement of the results secured for the money spent. 
From the standpoint of increasing school revenue the problems 
must be stated in terms of school needs in relation to amount of 
increase in revenue desired. 

If the resources of our society were unlimited the problem of 
securing adequate support for education would be very simple. 
A need once recognized would be met by a grant of sufficient 
funds. As the situation actually is the ability of any community 
to satisfy the demand for increased support for schools must be 
judged in terms of the whole community fiscal problem. Many 
Am^erican communities are poor, some are, for various reasons, 
almost bankrupt. The abihty to raise money is limited. Of the 
total amount of revenue collected only a part can be spent for 
schools. It is quite as important for a community to maintain 
a police force and a fire department as it is to have schools. 
Money spent for paving, sewage systems, hospitals, proper hand- 
ling of contagious disease, inspection of meat and milk and the 
like, cannot advantageously be withdrawn for any other use. 

The expedient of rendering the schools independent of the 
general municipal government by creating a board with power to 
levy and collect taxes as well as to manage the schools, seems to 

352 



Expenditures for Schools in Relation to Others 353 

the writer to be open to serious criticism. It is true that under 
this form of control schools may receive, for a time at least, more 
money than they could hope for from the general administration. 
It has often been contended that our schools have almost invar- 
iably been administered honestly. Granting both of these argu- 
ments, the fact remains that the schools represent only one type 
of community activity and ought not to draw from the resources 
of the community to such an extent as to cripple other agencies 
of vital importance to the welfare of the group. Then, too, there 
is an undoubted value in placing those who administer schools 
in a position in which they are called upon to justify the use of 
money already granted and to show clearly the needs which he 
back of the demand for increased support. We may not hope 
for the highest type of efficiency from any man or group of men 
who lack the stimulus which is found in a close and continual 
scrutiny of their pubhc acts. School boards and school superin- 
tendents are not exceptions to this rule. 

The only adequate study of city expenditures, with special 
reference to the money spent for schools, is Professor E. C. 
Elliott's ''Some Fiscal Aspects of Education." The remainder 
of this section will consist mainly of tables of results from this 
investigation. Professor Elliott's data were secured from the 
bulletins, numbers 36 and 42, of the Department of Labor issued 
in September 1901 and 1902 and from bulletin 20, of the Bureau 
of the Census issued in 1905. The classification used by the 
Department of Labor is modified and improved in the later 
pubhcation of the Bureau of the Census but not so greatly as to 
invahdate comparisons among the results secured from the two 
sets of data. The following parts of tables from Professor 
EUiott's study give the two classifications and at the same time 
show the data derived from the original data expressed as per- 
centages of the total amount expended instead of amount in 
dollars as found in the original tables. 



TABLE 
Showing Percentages of Total Amount Expended for Maintenance and Operation 

All Cities in the United St/vtf.s 



City 



New York, N. Y 

Chicago, 111 

Philadelphia, Pa 

St. Louis, Mo 

Boston, Mass 

Baltimore, Md 

Cleveland, Ohio 

Buffalo, N. Y 

San Francisco, Cal.. . 
Cincinnati, Ohio. . . . 

Pittsburg, Pa 

New Orleans, La. . . . 

Detroit, Mich 

Milwaukee, Wis 

Washington, D. C. . 

Newark, N. J 

Jersey City, N. J.. . . 

Louisville, Ky 

Minneapolis, Minn. . 
Providence, R. L . . . 
Indianapolis, Ind.. . . 
Kansas City, Mo.. . . 
23JSt. Paul, Minn 

24 Rochester, N. Y 

25 Denver, Col 

26 Toledo, Ohio 

27 Allegheny, Pa 

28 Columbus, Ohio . . . . 
29 1 Worcester, Mass. . . . 

30|Syracuse, N. Y 

31 [New Haven, Conn. .. 

32[Paterson, N. J 

33 1 Fall River, Mass. . . . 

34 St. Joseph, Mo 

35'Omaha, Neb 

36 Los Angeles, Cal. . . . 

Memphis, Tenn 

Scranton, Pa 

Lowell, Mass 

Albany, N. Y 

Cambridge, Mass.. . . 

Portland, Ore 

Atlanta, Ga 

Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Dayton, Ohio 

Richmond, Va 

47iNashville, Tenn 

48 Seattle, Wash 

Hartford, Conn 

Reading, Pa 

Wilmington, Del. . . . 

Camden N. J 

Trenton, N. J 

Bridgeport. Conn.. . . 

Lynn, Mass 

Oakland, Cal 

Lawrence, Mass 

New Bedford, Mass. . 

Des Moines, Iowa. . . 

Springfield, Mass.. . . 

Somerville, Mass. . . . 

Troy, N.J 

Hoboken, N. J 

Evansville, Ind 

Manchester, N. H.. . 

Utica, N. Y 

Peoria, III 

Charleston, S. C 











■|io 


en 

1 


rt rt (U 


Is 
^0 


S2 


10.15 


.791 


4.66 


.924 


4.66 


14.9 


.555 


1.72 


.648 


19.30 


1.460 


8.30 


.878 


.04 


31.8 


•894 


3-30 


2.00 


14.30 


2.640 


5.02 


1.480 


2.49 


17.1 


1^33 


2.63 


• 432 


17.80 


1.270 


8.01 


.420 


6.14 


16.8 


•453 


1.29 


r..i2 


8.66 


6.660 


6.26 


.824 


6.16 


IS. 4 


1.61 


2.50 


1.88 


II . 20 


2.770 


5.84 


.995 


4.07 


15.4 


• 034 


3.29 


.418 


8.64 


1. 910 


9.83 


1.540 


2.73 


23.7 


1.65 


.786 


.694 


13.10 


.406 


11.00 


.725 


2.60 


19.1 


1.65 


3.21 


.197 


14.80 


1.980 


9.88 


1.660 


3.82 


20.9 


.754 


2.66 


.824 


9.88 


1.840 


8.13 


.677 


3.45 


17.3 


1.13 


.611 


.696 


8.07 




7.85 


1.310 


2.25 


13.5 


1.03 


2.88 


i.ii 


5.60 


1.330 


6.24 


1.190 


1. 18 


10.4 


• 173 


.205 




16.00 


.341 


14.60 


1.030 


2.09 


23.9 


1.79 


2.89 


1.41 


9.32 


.507 


11.40 


• 979 


.36 


21. 1 


1.60 


1.86 


1.40 


13.00 


6.790 


4.60 


1.350 


7.50 


21.7 


.140 


1. 16 


1^39 


8.55 




5.88 


1. 190 


4.25 


18.3 


• 713 


.0937 


1.27 


9.94 


-234 


5.28 


.176 


.73 


II. 


• 763 


.142 


• 448 


9.77 


3.770 


8.96 


.301 


2.23 


17.9 




1.70 


•497 


7.36 


■ 537 


11.20 


.842 


3.03 


25.6 


1^43 


2. SI 


1.26 


9.56 


. 120 


9.41 


.451 


1.06 


17.9 


• 331 


1.19 


1.74 


9.02 


.160 


10. 10 


.722 


2.42 


33.2 


2.82 


4.48 


4^77 


11.90 


1. 160 


11.90 


1.960 


.16 


26.5 


•963 


2.39 


• 424 


7.70 


1.640 


!-?^ 


.377 


1.00 


19.0 


.615 


2.40 


• 714 


5.54 


.435 


6.68 


1.240 


3.15 


16.1 


•077 


• 787 


• 0997 


7.56 


.724 


8.35 


1 .520 


1.87 


37^2 


1.27 


3^64 


• 831 


6.96 


1.870 


7.57 


1 . 040 


(a) 


25-9 


•732 


1.17 


.872 


6.85 




6.67 


• 763 


3.55 


17.3 


1.15 


1^37 


• 754 


7 OS 


1. 010 


9.56 


1.290 


.66 


22.5 


.522 


•535 


.658 


5.65 




6.36 


1. 1 10 


5. 56 


21.2 


1.58 


1 .04 


"•5 


7.57 


• 735 


9.22 


.817 


5.86 


21.8 


1.93 


1.91 




13.50 


.967 


9.78 


.538 


5.25 


26.6 


1.13 


1. 41 


• 798 


9.99 


.299 


10.10 


• 584 


5.22 


25.2 


1.56 


2.44 


•954 


8.54 




7.57 


.933 


8.22 


18.1 


1. 01 


.186 




12.60 


1.250 


12.90 


1.680 


.41 


28.4 


1.22 


1. 14 


.825 


5.42 


.739 


8. II 


.539 


• 30 


25.6 


1.29 


1.29 


1^93 


9.57 


.719 


9.14 


.914 


.29 


32.7 


1.39 


4.08 


.306 


11.20 




9.41 


7.460 


3-55 


15-9 


.698 


.229 




8.0s 


.519 


7.39 


• 709 




48.6 


1.42 


.641 


1^03 


10.20 




8.69 


2.34 


9.27 


24^7 


1 .05 


.959 


1. 16 


11.40 


.461 


9.92 


.929 


4.81 


22.5 


.416 


2.56 


.124 


5-71 




4.17 


.922 


4.89 


21.4 


.700 


.928 


4^30 


4.94 


•305 


7.40 


.320 


• 37 


22.9 




.807 


• 366 


13.70 




10.60 


10.60 


4.83 


I4^S 


.481 


1.38 


• 586 


7.94 


.968 


11.40 


1.260 


2.12 


28.1 


.694 


2.l6 


• 739 


7.84 


1.630 


8.65 


.584 


1.39 


32.7 


1.02 


.245 


• 258 


8.38 


.337 


7.45 


.743 


3.24 


10.6 


.411 


3.02 


• 152 


10.60 


.501 


10.20 


2.220 


2.55 


20.7 


.310 




.124 


5.84 


.733 


7-94 


• 934 


.38 


18.9 


1.06 


• 501 


• 30s 


9.24 


.652 


9.06 


• 915 


6.64 


24.2 


.827 


1.83 


•591 


9.38 




6.51 


.505 




28.2 


.528 


1.77 


4.67 


12.40 


.614 


5.71 


1 . 200 


• 13 


25.9 


1.04 


2.02 


• 526 


13.40 


.611 


10.20 


.476 


1. 35 


24.7 


.132 


.159 


• 136 


11.20 


.470 


9.81 


.716 


2.29 


21 .1 


.573 


1-57 


• 942 


8.27 


1 .070 


9.98 


.921 


8.07 


23.4 


1.73 


2.68 


• 863 


6.14 




7.18 


.857 


7.79 


1S.4 


1.77 


.511 


.888 


12.80 


1.200 


11.40 


1.430 


•30 


37^6 


1.82 


1.33 


• 673 


7.33 




6.68 


4 • 950 


7.83 


21.2 


1.48 


.716 


• 953 


11.00 




7.22 


.769 


5.66 


20.2 


1.42 


1.89 


.788 


5.96 


.791 


9.71 


1 .900 


• 34 


40.7 


1. 14 


2.10 


1.99 


5.12 




7.96 


• 498 


4.39 


26.7 


2.40 


1.98 


• 409 


5.33 




5.39 


.933 


3.13 


25.0 


1.22 


.934 


• 839 


II .60 


■ 469 


6.60 


1.340 


10.60 


18.7 




.269 


.466 


14.10 


• 444 


9.96 


.705 


2.36 


24.0 


1.05 


.588 


• 743 


9. IS 


427 


10.20 


• 499 


• 17 


31^9 




.196 


.404 


6.53 


• 452 


13.00 


1.290 


3-33 


18.7 


.839 


.866 


.59^ 


6.28 


.363 


10.70 


1.200 


2.57 


24.3 


1.04 


.437 


.706 


9.56 


2.440 


9.81 


1 . 140 




31-4 


1.82 


1-95 


• 942 


12.70 




8.30 


2.000 


11.50 


12.3 


.081 


I 05 


1.53 



(.7) Less than .oi. 



1 Percentages obtained from data published in Bulletin 36 of 



Devoted to Each of the Municipal Departments for the Fiscal Year iqoo i 
Above 30,000 Population 



lit 

ii on 


II 


II 

0^ 




II 










•Ef 


C 0) 
rt > 

1^ 


Is 
If 




1 


s 


1 
C 




J 4.10 


1.84 


1.04 


13-12 


3^22 






•656 


• 360 


.067 




.048 


33-69 


I 


1 3.02 


1.50 


2.25 


6.73 


6.36 




1^54 


.101 


1.030 


.017 




•OS4 


7-27 


2 


' 1.63 


3-59 


2.96 


10.90 


7-79 






.024 


5.210 


.023 




• 495 


19^30 


3 


3.32 


3.57 


2.15 


8.66 


6.70 






.660 


• 379 


■073 






14-50 


4 


2.67 


7-32 


3 •16 


II. 10 


6.47 








2.040 


.142 


• 332 


-572 


12.40 


5 


2.67 


2.19 


2.22 


20.10 


3^62 






.056 


.286 


.069 




• 054 


1950 


6 


1.20 


1.99 


1^50 


14-40 


5^89 








2.250 


•450 


.648 




15.10 


7 


2.98 


4.02 


1.86 


10.90 


5^86 






•756 


.179 


• 230 


.001 


.01 


15^40 


8 


2.70 


3-13 




•25 










.096 








32-50 


9 


3-29 


1.68 


• 42 


28.90 


7-85 






.080 


•445 


.221 






7-83 


10 


2.47 


4-25 


1.40 


12.40 


4-65 






•382 


• 757 


.288 






30.80 


II 


2.94 


.26 


2.49 


14^70 


















48.20 


12 


4.69 


II. SO 


1.79 


8.64 


3^6o 




3^34 




• 589 


.070 






1. 71 


13 


5.16 


3.80 


4.80 


9.22 


4-46 






.078 


1.720 






• 325 


15.80 


14 


3.48 


6.42 


1. 14 


8.43 


3-32 








.651 


•134 




.020 


14.10 


15 


2.54 




1^38 


8.37 


6.96 










-415 




.121 


35-70 


16 


1.47 


2.99 




23.20 


8.96 






•073 










30.70 


^l 


3.60 


5.59 




17.60 


4-91 






•279 










17.90 


18 


5-QO 


2.03 




12.90 


3-74 








• 365 








16.30 


19 


1-73 


5-57 


.698 


20.50 


2.64 








.636 




.626 




17.90 


20 


5-36 


1-54 


2^53 


7^72 


.18 








• 301 


•632 






11.80 


21 


4.41 


115 


• 94 


12.00 


8.48 








• 238 


.088 






11.50 


22 


4-34 


3.36 


.88 


22.50 


3-47 








2.730 








12.80 


23 


3 10 


1.89 


2.69 


21.80 


2.58 








-595 




1. 1 20 




24.20 


24 


4.18 


• 952 


■ 52 


7.60 










-017 


•382 






17-40 


^1 


2.53 


4.79 


.81 


21.10 


4.81 


1.24 






1-380 


•513 


.626 




11.30 


26 


2.73 


5-53 


1-59 


14.00 


12.50 




4.21 


.170 




• 321 






20.70 


27 


3-g6 


.82 


.81 


21.10 


6.91 




.020 






•451 






18.50 


28 


2.90 


8.72 


.70 


14^90 


2.56 














.020 


11.50 


29 


501 


3.66 


4^05 


IS 20 


5^52 








1. 610 


.275 


.077 


• 283 


8.63 


30 


6.45 


3.89 


.39 


10.50 










.772 








12.40 


31 


4.60 


5 -09 


2.78 


12.30 


















12.50 


32 


2.54 


7.17 


2.01 


8.29 


9^66 












1.380 




18.30 


33 


2.46 


4.81 




15.80 






5.58 




.206 








10.70 


34 


1.62 


2.52 




20.20 












.148 






24.90 


35 


6.49 


5. 91 


.82 


4.89 


















19.40 


36 


3.06 


10.33 




18.60 








.766 


2.350 


.668 






10.60 


37 


1. 8s 


2.06 


•43 


8.06 










• 694 








12.30 


38 


2.35 


2.21 


1. 41 


13-70 


6.38 












• 709 




8.09 


39 


2.49 


2.27 


.03 


16.60 


9-23 








• 377 


.118 






10.70 


40 


2.79 


7.06 


2.49 


14-70 


3-37 








2.360 




.826 


.061 


19-90 


41 


3.18 


1. 00 


• 36 


27.00 


3-66 
















23.00 


42 




4.20 




14-50 


5^87 








• 145 




.837 




11 .00 


43 


3.69 


.68 


• 44 


7.50 


8.93 




2.22 




• 154 


• 373 


1-950 




18.70 


44 


2.31 


2.61 


2.05 


19.80 


4.46 








1^580 


.669 






7.02 


45 


2.81 


3.36 


1.62 


30.90 


3-14 


11.90 






.292 


• 497 


.717 




7.6o 


46 


1.62 


6.81 


3^74 


20.60 


6.82 










• 343 






7.17 


47 


.854 


2.0s 


.06 


20.30 


7.14 






.181 


• 035 








30.60 


48 


4.72 


13.6 


1.87 


13. 10 


4-59 








• 835 




422 


.181 


2.61 


49 


2.26 


3.84 


2.83 


8.37 


8.32 










•157 






13-50 


50 


2.35 


3-34 


4.18 


13-50 


9-27 














-038 


10.70 


51 


1-57 


3-77 


1.09 


16.70 


9.49 
















6.54 


52 


2.43 


2. II 


1.46 


20.10 


7-46 
















15-10 


53 


3.48 


6.19 


3^28 


9.12 










• 575 








13.00 


54 


^5^ 


6.21 


2.6l 


15.40 


4-68 












2.190 




19.60 


55 


6.94 


2.64 




3-39 








.429 










9-44 


56 


2.38 


5-48 


1.37 


13-00 


7-22 








.371 




1.300 




13-60 


57 


1. 10 


5.51 


2.24 


16.90 


4-45 






.624 


.168 




2.89 


.071 


11.90 


58 


2.24 


1.46 




4-59 










1.950 




1.24 


• 151 


16.90 


59 


3-43 


3.32 


1.80 


II. 10 


3-94 
















22.20 


60 


1.62 


6.09 


1.89 


6. 29 


5-73 








• 039 








31.20 


61 


9.86 


.63 


4^55 


7-92 


8.65 






• 013 


.C41 


.040 


.096 




10.40 


62 


1. 61 


•25 


.48 


8.49 


21 . 10 












• 475 


• 203 


10.00 


63 


1.64 


1.32 


.62 


18.60 


7.14 






.III 


• 077 


• 311 






11.40 


64 


2. IS 


12.20 


2.68 


13.10 


3.88 












1.980 




9 50 


65 


4.00 


1.72 


1.73 


3 •IS 










.328 






.065 


29.10 


66 


2.62 


3.53 


.12 


8.89 






.021 


1.440 








17.20 


67 




5^15 


3.84 


25^4 












.056 






10.80 


68 



The Department of Labor, September, 1901. 



355 



TABLE 
Showing Percentages of Total Payments for General and Municipal Service Expenses 

Cities Between 25,000 



Cities 



"5 



O 6 



Schenectady, N. Y 
Youngstown, Ohio. 
Hoiyoke, Mass.. . . 
Fort Wayne, Ind.. 

Akron, C)hio 

Saginaw, Mich.. . . 
Tacoma, Wash.. . . 
Covington, Ky.. . . 

Lancaster, Pa 

Dallas, Tex 

Lincoln, Nebr 

Brockton, Mass.. . 
Pawtucket, R. L. . 
Birmingham, Ala.. 
Little Rock, Ark.. . 
Spokane, Wash.. . . 

Altoona, Pa 

Augusta, Ga 

Binghamton, N. Y, 

Mobile, Ala 

South Bend. Ind.. . 
Wheeling, W. Va.. 
Springfield, Ohio. . 
Johnstown, Pa.. . . 
Haverhill, Mass.. . 

Topeka, Kan 

Terre Haute, Ind.. 

Allentown, Pa 

McKeesport, Pa.. . 
Dubuque, Iowa. . . 

Butte, Mont 

Davenport, Iowa. . 

Quincy, 111 

Salem, Mass 

Elmira, N. Y 

Maiden, Mass 

Bayonne, N. J.. . . 

Superior, Wis 

York, Pa 

Newton, Mass.. . . 
East St. Louis, 111.. 

Springfield, 111 

Chester, Pa 

Chelsea, Mass 

Fitchburg, Mass.. . 

Knoxville, Tenn i 8 

Rockford, 111 I 5 

Sioux City, Iowa I 8 

Montgomery, Ala 6 

Taunton, Mass 6 

Newcastle, Pa , 8 

Passaic, N. J 

Atlantic City, N. J 

Canton, Ohio 

Jacksonville, Fla.. . 
Galveston, Tex.. . . 
Auburn, N. Y 
Racine, Wis 
South Omaha, Neb 
Joplin, Mo 
Joliet, 111 



32 

83 

64 

24 

45 

28 

77 

66 

08 

9-37 

8.86 

7-52 

2.08 

7.96 

8.03 

8.69 



.67 

• 05 
.13 
.28 

• 13 
.67 

• 25 
1. 17 

• 49 
■ 35 

• 07 
.69 
.90 

.42 



1. 19 

• 32 
.12 
.65 



.26 

115 

1.03 

.89 

.60 



^ 




, 














s*- 


ri 


a- 


r? 


















s. 




t^. 


11.87 




9.22 


13-41 




9.92 


7.18 


.001 


10.66 


9-34 




15.77 


8.0s 


.09 


17.00 


8.. 54 




7-27 


6.51 




8.73 


10.25 




9.10 


1.08 




7.69 


9.90 




11.02 


4.69 




8.71 


7-44 


-32 


9.20 


8.10 




6.81 


12.32 


.07 


13-45 


16.78 




15.05 


5-35 




10.27 


5.36 




9.01 


7.62 




6.79 


9-49 




13-88 


11.22 




13.47 


7-57 




8-99 


8.8s 






6.98 


.19 


9.98 


6.76 




11.52 


8.84 




19.43 


6.00 




9.61 


11.18 




10.30 


S.20 




10.08 


13-73 




12.48 


7.34 




13.52 


8.03 




15. 55 


8.62 


-79 


7.57 


8.18 




12.90 


5-94 


.11 


5.68 


13-13 


.11 


2.99 


6.88 




18.37 


8.65 




9-85 


7-73 


•05 


5-14 


8.72 




9-98 


11-75 




iS-48 


9-30 




7.10 


7-92 


.06 


6.94 


8.31 


.07 


8.26 


8.07 




12.38 


7.00 




12.07 


6.80 




7-38 


13-07 




8. 10 


8.71 


.19 


6.22 


6.75 




10.75 


6.11 


.10 


8.29 


11.58 


.01 


14-25 


8.25 




II. 19 


9-78 




12.15 


7.01 




10.52 


4-13 




14-14 


7.12 




9.52 


9-89 




13.85 


10.29 




9.49 



From bulletin of Bureau of Census No. 20. 
356 



Devoted to Each of the Itemized Purposes. 
AND 50,000 Population 



Average for the Fiscal Years 1902 and 1903. 



Is 


Is 

:i 

6^ 




3.S 


'H 


1 


3 
. <u 


rS 
u 
-3 

^ 2 


1 
c 






u 

> 

in 






4.21 


4.83 


7.85 


10.65 


21.70 


.63 


.24 


.34 


14.28 


-03 


I 


.35 


2 


64 


3.86 


5 


51 


6.86 


37.05 


1.02 


.47 




8.13 




2 




7 


82 


7.02 


3 


90 


4-39 


26.66 


1.36 


1-23 




14-32 


3.36 


3 


• 33 




05 


4.89 


8 


28 


6.00 


33.02 


1.35 


3.06 




8.83 




4 


.06 


3 


30 


7-79 


8 


08 


1.48 


37.05 


1-73 


.60 




6.89 




5 




3 


23 


14-37 


3 


93 


3.62 


36.05 


1.07 


-32 




12.05 




6 






24 


6.63 






1-33 


28.50 


.98 


2.01 


1.92 


35-70 




7 




3 


10 


4-44 


6 


41 


6. II 


24.70 


1.20 


-03 




20.37 


.oS 


8 






54 


12.26 


13 


95 


5-97 


32.32 




-13 




8.64 


.09 


9 




3 


85 ■ 


12.18 


5 


50 


3.63 


22.80 


.81 


• 74 


.29 


20.85 




10 






10 


3.26 


4 


06 


2.81 


40.80 


1.46 


.02 




24-77 


.08 


II 




8 


69 


9.98 


4 


53 


5.28 


25-06 


1.66 


-40 


1.24 


12.81 


2-52 


12 


.28 


2 


94 


9-25 


5 


61 


4.27 


23-75 


1-33 


-47 




25.06 


2.61 


13 


.08 


I 


94 


10.96 


3 


60 


4.14 


13-72 


.04 


-63 




28.57 


-31 


14 




3 


88 


9 -03 


2 


27 


1 . 71 


30.30 




I. 21 




3.48 


1. 18 


IS 




I 


71 


8.48 


I 


74 


1.77 


29-65 


.48 


1.60 


3.60 


25-83 




16 


.84 




8.28 


5 


09 


2.95 


38.40 








20.25 


.02 


17 


No 


data for 


schools 




















18 


.30 


13^35 


9 30 


9 


12 


2.79 


31-90 


.001 


1.03 




6.73 




19 


No 


data for 


schools 




















20 


.31 




7.61 


7 


35 


5.22 


32.30 


I-I3 


2-15 


.48 


11.65 


-OS 


21 




1.68 


4.88 


7 


84 


6.12 


33-67 


I. 71 






9-15 


-58 


22 


• 05 


2.81 


4.00 


12 


43 


7.98 


31-90 


1.38 


1.96 




10.23 




23 


.20 


4.71 


11.8s 


6 


44 


.001 


47-05 




•55 




6.87 




24 


• 05 


13.62 


10.40 


6 


61 


2.31 


25-76 


2.24 


I. 71 


.07 


12.50 


.27 


25 




• S6 


9.86 


3 


72 


1.60 


41.76 


1.22 


.61 




12.36 




26 


.16 


•51 


2.69 


7 


71 


5-59 


39-35 


-73 


-49 




4-41 




27 


■4S 


.10 


8.19 


7 


45 


3-39 


42.88 




.c8 




12.60 




28 


• 30 


1.20 


5.96 


6 




3-79 


35-43 


-94 






11.22 




29 






8.09 


7 


22 


4-56 


29-98 


1-33 


-45 




21.02 




30 


.02 


.84 


8.71 


4 


08 


3-55 


36-35 


2-79 


-05 




6.20 


•34 


31 


.18 




9.42 


8 


16 


7-79' 


37-10 


-95 


3.22 




4-51 




32 




I .q6 


4-79 


7 


13 


4.20 


29.56 


1 .52 


2.69 




18.05 




33 


•45 


17.65 


5.86 


7 


68 


3-66 


25-22 


2.33 


2.33 




6.97 




34 


.02 


^^^ 


9-95 


8 


77 


2-37 


25-75 


.51 


1.72 


.02 


1133 




35 




6.26 


9.33 


4 


71 


3-63 


27.80 


2.29 


.42 


14.72 


11.26 


.61 


36 




.87 


6.43 


.7 


34 


2.14 


32-77 


.87 


-40 




21.07 




37 




1.79 


9.87 


3 


65 


I -30 


36.4s 


1.40 






3-42 




38 


.06 


.70 


9.19 


9 


03 


7-59 


37 55 


.12 


-79 




8.84 




39 




3-74 


10.74 


5 


12 


4.55 


21.58 


1.55 


-65 


9.43 


20.69 


•57 


40 






13-91 


4 


04 


2-03 


33-75 


1. 00 


-05 




15-65 




41 


.70 


I 13 


3-68 


7 


29 


3-70 


28.11 


.93 


3-34 


1.57 


12-85 


.01 


42 




4-45 


3.75 


8 


16 


3-44 


34-92 




.80 




13-75 




43 


■33 


9.98 


7.02 


5 


^0° 


4-37 


24 ■ 03 


.92 


.65 


13.98 


9.60 


i^3i 


44 




11.79 


11.35 


6 


82 


3-07 


26.28 


1.59 


.82 


.32 


13-35 


.02 


45 




3.59 


6 . 39 


8 


37 


3-52 


19-75 








25-54 




46 




•73 


6.88 


9 


10 


5.85 


40.70 


3.43 


.26 




7-68 




47 




.02 


8.36 


4 


10 


6.62 


30.01 


.68 


.61 




26.12 




48 




2.10 


7.78 


5 


41 


3.43 


12.87 


.30 


.79 




34-25 


2.43 


49 


•35 


952 


11.23 


3 


09 


2.36 


25-75 


1.66 


•71 


.30 


17.8s 


3^i3 


50 




5-97 


7.95 


I 


17 


3.67 


47-25 




.04 




7.60 




51 


• 15 


3.86 


6.90 


6 


82 


3.98 


37.77 


1.50 


1.77 


1. 31 


9-76 




52 


.22 


4.46 


5.20 


6 


74 


13.30 


16.76 


.54 


■33 


113 


15.16 




53 


•l? 


1. 1 9 


3.53 


8 


69 


6.92 


35-79 


.90 


1.33 


. 12 


14-79 




54 


No 


data for 


schools 




















55 




8.85 


5.69 


I 


77 


7.64 


20.25 


.31 


.30 




22.95 




56 




7.96 


8.42 


9 


27 


4.54 


29.50 


.62 


.04 




7-49 


3^22 


57 




4-17 


13-27 


5 


28 


.21 


39 . 20 


3.03 


• 03 




8.00 




S8 




1.67 


4.62 


6 


06 


.18 


40.17 


.08 


.17 




16.31 




59 




.74 


10.30 




.18 


44.50 


1. 71 


.01 


1.60 


6.95 




60 


.So 


•79 


7.12 


7.47 


6.63 


38.42 


1. 91 


2 .00 




6.17 




61 



357 



358 



Educational Administration 



TABLE IIS 
Showing Percentages of Total Payments for General and Municipal Service Expenses 

Cities Between 25,000 



Cities 



Chattanooga, Tenn.. 
Woonsocket, R. I.. . 
Sacramento, Cal.. . . 

La Crosse, Wis 

Oshkosh, Wis 

Newport, Ky , 

Williamsport, Pa.. . , 

Pueblo, Col 

Council Bluffs, Iowa 
New Britain. Conn.. 
Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 

Lexington, Ky 

Bay City, Mich 

Fort Worth, Tex.. . . 

Easton, Pa 

Gloucester, Mass.. . , 
Jackson, Mich , 



±0 








ti 


1^^ 


t, 




.S 




n 


a 


^ s 


S 


oe 









Pn 


7.83 


•57 


12.19 




15.72 


6.76 


.06 


8.24 




8.35 


8.50 


.85 


8.90 




9.66 


10.45 




6.91 




13.39 


9.88 


•50 


5.52 




15.67 


8.86 


.26 


8.53 




5.26 


9.42 




4-97 




12.48 


11.02 


.20 


8.00 




6.83 


6.17 


.77 


5.96 




16.73 


S.46 


.82 


6.23 




10.28 


6.45 


1 .10 


6.68 




8.97 


15.66 


1. 01 


12.03 


.02 


9.53 


14.55 


.72 


8.92 




10.68 


7.15 


.30 


7.62 




8.78 


7.40 




6.35 




9.12 


11.37 




7.88 


.20 


9-53 


9.03 


.95 


8.16 




13.32 






79 



.86 

1 .69 

2.56 

I -13 

2.29 

.12 

3-51 

2.27 

1.80 

.24 

.53 

.40 

1.83 

.91 



From the tables given above are derived tables of frequency, 
measures of variability and of relationship. The tables which 
follow are marked ^'L", for those derived from the data of the 
bulletins of the Department of Labor, and " C ", for those derived 
from the data of the bulletin of the Bureau of the Census. 



TABLE 116 (L) 

Table of Measures of Variability of Percentile Expenditures for Main- 
tenance AND Operation. All Cities in the United States Above 30,000 
Population. Fiscal Years 1900 and 1901 



Police Department (average) 6 

Police Department, Courts, Jails, etc. (1901) 7 

Fire Department (average) 6 

Municipal Lighting (1901) 4 

Libraries, Museums, etc. (average) 

Health Department (average) 

Parks (1901) 

Schools (average) 19 

Interest on Debt (average) 8 



and 



ie between 


2 P. E 


9.82% 


1.89 


II. 22 


3-79 


9.70 


2.98 


6.72 


2-33 


1.40 


•74 


1.6 


•9 


1 .90 


1.36 


30.58 


10.97 


19-15 


10.31 



Expenditures for ScJiools in Relation to Others 359 



{Continued) 

Devoted to Each of the Itemized Purposes. Average for the Fiscal \ears 1902 and 1903- 

AND 50,000 Population 



3^ 




1^ 


J: 


a^? 


c 


tn 


2.1 


i 


s 




c 
2 

"E 




1^ 


P 




!i 

6.70 

5-91 







■p 


«2 

3 
3 

Cm 


c 



1^ 




.18 


7.52 
5-75 


3.90 
10.09 


5-19 
3.68 


17.90 

20.57 


.16 

.24 


2.03 
-09 


.17 
3-15 


16.85 
22.27 


2.99 


62 
63 

67 
68 
69 
70 
71 


. 21 


.36 


12.60 


8.05 


8.39 


35 30 


2.46 


1.20 


'M 


^4^ 

6.35 




.06 


.06 

3-74 


5-23 
12.93 


5-79 
5.62 


3-17 
1.56 


39-27 
33-57 


.55 
2.26 


:^s 




.09 


3-54 

'■7 


6.09 

6.24 

11.50 


6.94 

7.56 
4.04 


5-22 
2.25 
I. 61 


26.04 
35-94 
33-27 


1.44 
.So 


.05 

.88 

3.81 


.15 


35 42 
10.80 
12.52 


3.44 


.26 


■ 14 


5.07 


4.72 


2.27 


42.82 


1.50 


2.30 






.06 






6.30 


6.19 


6.04 


38.26 




■ 94 




15-90 




.01 


13-65 


6 . 53 


3-57 


38-45 


1.90 


1.84 


-45 


8.16 
12.65 
15.18 




72 




8.64 


5.38 


7.82 


2.60 


22.30 


-49 


.06 






73 




.29 
1. 01 






4.80 


33-61 


1 .05 


-57 






74 


.16 


10.36 


1-03 


.76 


18.45 


.89 


■ 35 




37-15 


5-41 


75 
76 






10.36 


• 39 


2.60 


50-87 


1. 15 


-07 




11-25 

13-78 

7.49 




.18 
•03 


13.38 
6.10 


13-39 
12.8s 


3. So 
6.52 


.91 
4.79 


22.50 
27.60 


1.49 


-40 
.50 




.80 


^8 



TABLE 117 (C) 

Table of Measures of Vari.^bility of Percentile Payments for Gexer.^l 
AND Municipal Service Expenses. Seventy-five Cities Between 25,000 
and 50,000 Population. Average of Fiscal Years 1902 and 1903 



General Administration 6 

Police Department 6 

Fire Department 8 

Healtli Department. ._ 

Charities and Corrections 

Public Highways 6 

Street Lighting 4 

Public Sanitation 2 

Schools 25 

Libraries 

Public Recreation 

Interest on Debt 8 



'0 of the 


cases 


lie between 


2 P. E. 


76% 


and 


9-24% 


2.48^ 


98 




9 49 


2-5^ 


71 




12.99 


4.28 


87 




1.98 


I . II 


7Q 




5-75 


4-99 


00 




10.30 


4 30 


10 




7.71 


3.61 


•37 




5.22 


1.85 


•75 




37.10 


11-35 


•73 




i^SS 


•77 


.29 




1 . 20 


.91 


•13 




1599 


5.8t> 



360 



Educational Adjninistration 



TABLE 118 (L) 

Table of Medians, Average Deviations, Standard Deviations, and Co- 
efficients OF Variability. Percentile Expenditures for Maintenance 
and Operation. Fiscal Years 1900 and 1901. All Cities in United 
States Above 30,000 Population 



Median 



Average 
Deviation 



Standard 
Deviation 



Coefficient of 
Variability 



Police Department 

Police Department, Courts 

Jails, etc 

Fire Department 

Health Department 

Schools 

Libraries, etc 

Parks 

Street Lighting 



1900 
8.02 

8.82 

8.23 

•93 



3.60 
1 .02 
1 .04 
5-51 



1901 
8.28 



IQOO I9OI 
2.17 2.30 



8.88 
8.46 I 
1.07 
24 . 96 
1 .02 
1 .04 
5-56 



1900 1901 
2.96 2.59 



2.373 

i.8oj2 

.79! 
6.30:8 

.44 
.80! I 

I.65I2 



37 3-20 




45 2.28 




91 1.40 


09 7.561 


58 .55 




16 1.06 




15 2.10 





1900 

.767 
839 

693 

5S3 

32 
483 
82 
719 



I90I 
•799 

•795 
.619 
.768 
1.06 

.442 

.784 
.696 



TABLE 119 (C) 

Table of Medians, Average Deviations, Standard Deviations, and Co- 
efficients OF Variability. Average Percentile Payments for General 
and Municipal Service Expenses. Fiscal Years 1902 and 1903. Cities 
Between 25,000 and 50,000 Population 



General Administration. . . . 

Police Department 

Fire Department 

Health Department 

Charities and Corrections . . 

Public Highways 

Street Lighting 

PubHc Sanitation 

Schools 

Libraries 

Public Recreation 

Interest on Debt 





Standard 


Average Coeffi 


:ient of 




Deviation 


Deviation Variability 


8.08 


2.06 


1-54 


54 


8.16 


2 


38 


I 


74 


609 


9.98 


3 


31 


2 


58 


817 


1 .40 




997 




747 


b33 


3.02 


4 


04 


2 


98 I 


71 


8.19 




99 


2 


52 


908 


6.43 


2 


35 


I 


84 


725 


3.67 


2 


43 


I 


78 


927 


2.30 


8 


34 


6 


67 


175 


1. 14 




727 




56 


524 


.61 




92 




642 


814 


2.50 


7 


79 


5 


75 I 


62 



Expenditures for Schools in Relation to Others 361 



TABLE 120 (L) 

Table of Pearson Coefficiexts of Correlation. Percentile Expenditures 
FOR Maintenance and Operation for the Fiscal Years iqoo ant) 1901. 
All Cities in the United States Abov^e 30,000 Population 











Ave 


rage of 


1900 


1901 


1900 and 
1901 


+ .0256 


— .149 


— .069 


— 


0459 


— 


15 


— 


0679 


+ 


203 


+ 


065 


+ 


0969 


— 


0243 


— 


205 


— 


0145 


+ 


279 


+ 


315 


+ 


293 


+ 


031 


+ 


065 


+ 


0156 


+ 


354 


+ 


336 


H- 


344 






— 


482 






— 


288 






+ .0685 










+ 


139 



Schools with — 

Police Department 

Police Department, Courts, etc 

Fire Department 

Health 

Libraries and Museums 

Parks 

Street Lighting 

Interest on Debt 

Other Expenditures 

Street Lighting Department with 
Police Department 

Fire Department with 
Police Department, Courts, etc 



TABLE 121 (L) 
Table of Pearson Coefficients of Correlation. Per Capita Expentditures 
for Maintenance and Operation. All Cities in the United States 
Above 30,000 Population. Fiscal Years 1900 and 1901 

Schools with— 1900 1 90 1 

Pohce Department, Courts, etc + • 232 + .319 

Fire Department + . 444 + • 389 

Street Lighting + • 333 + ■ 361 

Assessed Valuation of Real and Personal Property + -45 

TABLE 122 (C) 

Table of Pearson Coefficients of Correlations. Average Percentile 
Payments for General and Municipal Service Expenses. Fiscal 
Years 1902 and 1903, all Cities Between 25,000 and 50,000 Population 
Schools with — 

General Administration — .094 

Police Department — .367 

Fire Department + . 088 

Health Department — . 187 

Charities and Corrections — .371 

Public Highways — . 0004 

Street Lighting + . 246 

Public Sanitation — . 246 

Libraries and Museums + • 30 

Public Recreation — .054 * 

Interest on Debt — .541 



362 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 123 (L) 

Table Showing General Group Rei.ationships. Selection of Cities Based 
ON Percentile Expenditures for Schools, and Made From all Cities 
in United States Having a Population of 30,000 and Over. Fiscal Year 
1901 

Highest ten cities in percentile school expenditures: 



III 

87 

114 

81 

38 

56 

113 

75 

100 

119 



Median, 
Average, 



46 


8 


44 


16 


38 


80 


42 


49 


41 


40 


40 


90 


3Q 


74 


38 


80 


38 


41 


37 


69 


41 


15 


41 


42 



8 


26 


7 


20 


2 


79 


5 


40 


6 


14 


8 


74 


8 


46 


10 


80 


4 


99 


II 


32 


7 


73 


7 


41 



aj ^ bo 

< 


Q 

a 


a 


1 
Q 


7-05 


12.80 


4-57 


3.21 


5-69 


10.86 


9.02 


5.08 


7-30 


7.48 


14.50 


8.21 


9.81 


7-43 


7-50 


8.17 


326 


10.50 


4-95 


13-52 


8.04 


12. 22 


6.56 


9.66 


6.43 


2.79 


14.44 


7-77 


9.70 


6.85 


7.62 


6.12 


8.12 


7.61 


8.13 


8.79 



Q:2 



8 


18 


9 


27 


7 


65 


10 


90 


8 


13 


9 


99 


5 


58 


9 


71 


15 


54 


10 


18 


9 


85 


9 


51 



Lowest ten cities in percentile school expenditures: 



3,1 


15.40 


5-40 


14 -43 


17.60 


10.00 


II . 10 


43 


14-32 


6.48 


8.74 


12.31 


10. II 


12.15 


17 


13.90 


4.48 


6.76 


27.61 


6.70 


II. 71 


5 


13.07 


3.60 


11.65 


15-49 


5-87 


13-17 


99 


12.30 


4.18 


7-36 


28.91 


9.28 


14-34 


68 


12.76 


4.49 


6.64 


25.66 


7-94 


14.78 


12 


II. 12 


5-03 


3-69 


18.60 


6.20 


6.24 


133 


10. 26 


5-54 


8.80 


30.85 


7.84 


11-45 


46 


9-83 


2.71 


8.02 


29.78 


7-34 


8.60 


80 


6.96 
12.53 


1 .96 


11.80 


29-45 


5-52 


7-29 


Median, 


4-49 


7.06 


28.26 


7-59 


11.58 


Average, 


11.99 


4-39 


8.49 


23-63 


7.68 


11.08 



Expenditures for Schools in Relation to Others 363 



TABLE 124 (C) 

Table Showing General Group Relationships. Selection of Cities Based on Percentile 
Payments for Schools, and Made from Cities in United States Having a Population of 
30,000 to 50,000. Average for Fiscal Years 1902 and 1903 

Highest ten cities in percentile school expenditures: 









76 


SO. 87 


7.40 


6.35 


9.12 


.40 




10.36 


■39 


2.60 


1. 15 


.07 


11.25 


51 


47 • 2.5 


8.09 


6.75 


10.75 


• 77 


5-97 


7^95 


1.17 


3^67 




.04 


7.60 


24 


47 -OS 


6.10 


8.85 


5. 89 


1-53 


4.71 


11.8s 


6.44 


.01 




•55 


6.87 


60 


44-50 


8.84 


9.89 


13-85 


.92 


• 74 


10.30 




.18 


1 .71 


.01 


6.95 


28 


42.88 


7.09 


6.00 


9.61 


2.10 


. 10 


8.19 


7-45 


3-39 




.08 


12.60 


70 


42.82 


6.17 


5 96 


16.73 


.12 


• 14 


5^07 


4.72 


2.27 


1-50 


2.30 


II. 12 


26 


41.76 


7-52 


6.76 


11.52 


2.23 


•56 


9.86 


3-72 


1.60 


1.22 


.61 


12.36 


11 


40.80 


8.08 


4.69 


8.71 


.82 


.10 


3.26 


4.06 


2.81 


1.46 


.02 


24.77 


47 


40.70 


S.32 


7.00 


12.07 


.67 


• 73 


6.88 


9.10 


5.8s 


3^43 


.26 


7.68 


59 


40.17 


12.16 


7.12 


9-52 


I. 21 


1.67 


4.62 


6.06 


.18 


.08 


• 17 


16.31 


Median, 


42.85 


7.46 


6.76 


10.18 


.87 


• 73 


8.07 


4.72 


2.44 


1.46 


.13 


II. 19 


Average, 


43.88 


7.68 


6.94 


10.78 


1.08 


1.63 


7.83 


4.80 


2.26 


I-5I 


• 41 


11.75 



Lowest ten cities in percentile school expenditures: 



I 


21.70 


"•54 


11.87 


9.22 


1.40 


4.28 


4-83 


7-85 


10.65 


-63 


24 


14.28 


40 


21^58 


7.67 


7-73 


5 -14 


.87 


3-74 


10.74 


5-12 


4-55 


1-55 


65 


20.69 


S6 


20.57 


6.76 


8.24 


8.35 


1.79 


5-75 


10.09 


5-91 


3-68 


.24 


09 


22.27 


20.25 


8.54 


9-78 


12.15 


1-52 


8.85 


5 69 


1-77 


7-64 


.31 


30 


22.95 


46 


19-75 


8.10 


8.07 


12.38 


4-33 


3-59 


6-39 


8.37 


3-52 






25^54 


75 


18.45 


7-15 


7.62 


8.78 


-53 


1 .01 


10.36 


1-03 


-76 


.89 


33 


H-l^ 


62 


17.90 


7-83 


12.19 


15-72 


3-02 


7-52 


3-90 


6.70 


519 


.16 2 


03 


16.85 


53 


16.76 


7-96 


11.58 


14-25 


1.67 


4.46 


5-20 


6.74 


13-30 


-54 


33 


15.16 


14 


13-72 


7-52 


12.32 


13-45 


1-97 


1-94 


10.96 


3.60 


4-14 


.04 


63 


28.57 


49 


12.87 


6.05 


13-07 


8.10 


3-05 


2 . 10 


7-78 


5-41 


3-43 


-30 


79 


34.25 


Median, 


19.10 


7-75 


10.68 


10.69 


1-73 


4.01 


7.09 


5-66 


4-35 


• 31 


33 


22.61 


Average, 


18.36 


7.91 


10.25 


10.75 


2.02 


4-32 


7-59 


5-25 


5-69 


.52 


60 


23-77 



In his analysis of the causes of variabihty in percentile expen- 
diture for schools Professor Elhott calls attention to many 
possible causes operating, of course, in varying degree, among the 
several cities making up the group studied. He expresses most 
adequately the lack of scientific management of municipal affairs 
in the following paragraph: 

''A municipahty is seldom economical in the expenditure of 
its revenues. It is far more often either parsimonious or extrava- 
gant. The recognition of the principle of expediency is much 



364 Educational Administration 

more frequent than that of real worth, or of final utility. The 
cost of public service is doubled because of the price often paid 
to mediocrity, or on account of the tribute levied under a system 
of political feudalism. And this price is paid by reason of civic 
inertia and impotence, or because the standards of good service 
are not known. The social income is spent according to standards 
that were or are, and not according to standards that ought to he. 
A city is not a machine, and any description of the forces that 
make for progress or otherwise must keep in mind that human 
beings make up, and human minds direct, municipal affairs and 
set up civic standards." 

Along with the study of school expenditures in relation to 
expenditures for various other sorts of municipal activity there 
is need for a companion study of sources of revenue. An interest- 
ing example of a partial study of this aspect of the fiscal problem 
is found in the report of the Commission Appointed to Study 
the System of Education in the Public Schools of Baltimore. 
The Commission found that Baltimore did not expend for its 
schools nor for its municipal affairs generally as much as the 
average or normal city. The following table and explanation 
taken from the report of this commission is suggestive.^ 

^ Report of the Commission Appointed to Study the System of Education in the 
Public Schools of Baltimore. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, No. 4, 
1911. 



Expenditures for Schools in Relation to Others 365 



TABLE 125 

Total Amounts and Amounts per Capita Received From Each of tqe Princip^nl Sources of 

Revenue in 1908 

[The amounts are taken from special reports of the Bureau of the Census: Statistics of Cities, 1908, 
pp. 192-193; the population figures from p. 343.] 









All Receipts 


Taxes 


Licefises and 
Permits 


No. 


Cities 


Estimated 
Population 
































Total 


Per 

Capita 


Total 


Per 
Capita 


Total 


Per 

Capita 


I 


Chicago-, 111 *\ 


2,092,869 


$41,546,465 


$19-95 


$31,843,470 


$15-25 


$8,608,914 


$4-12 


2 


St. Louis, Mo 


665,802 


13,799.932 


20.71 


11,773,339 


17-67 


1.495,724 


2.2s 


1 


Cleveland, Ohio . . . 


523.187 


9,345,285 


17.88 


7,628,341 


14-59 


1,329,358 


2-54 


4 


Baltimore, Md 


549.079 


8,963,040 


16.32 


7,518.725 


13.69 


902,959 


1-65 




Detroit, Mich 


426,592 


7,037,586 


16.49 


5,457.955 


12.79 


867,432 


2.03 


5 


Buffalo, N. Y 


405,714 


7,499.983 


18.49 


6,556,446 


16.18 


709,633 


I-7S 


7 


San Francisco, Cal.. 


402,836 


9,385,013 


23-35 


7,073,395 


17-55 


1,582,537 


3.93 


8 


Milwaukee, Wis. . . 


350.852 


6,142,214 


17-50 


4,859,602 


13-87 


869,525 


2.48 


9 


Newark, N.J 


322.784 


5.826,020 


18.07 


3,732,374 


11-57 


615,199 


1. 91 


10 


New Orleans, La. . 


329,207 


5,848,151 


17.79 


4,771,561 


14.50 


734.212 


2.23 


II 


Washington, D. C. 


321.128 


12.168,378 


37.93 


5,169,874 


16.12 


644,750 


2.01 


12 


Los Angeles, Cal. . . 


270,491 


5,273.272 


19-53 


3,446,268 


12.78 


717,594 


2.66 


13 


Minneapolis, Minn. 


286,241 


4,633,924 


16.20 


3,868,398 


13-55 


483,334 


1.69 









Fines and Forfeits 


Subventions and 
Grants for Education 


Other Subven- 
tions and Grants 
and Gifts 




Cities 


Estimated 












No. 


Population 




























Total 


Per 

Capita 


Total 


Per 

Capita 


Total 


Per 
Capita 


I 


Chicago, 111 


2,092,869 


$548,790 


$0,263 


• $340,585 


$0,164 


$204,706 


$0,099 


2 


St. Louis, Mo 


665,802 


107,020 




161 


283.243 


-425 


140,5851 .211 


3 


Cleveland, Ohio . . 


523.187 


23.901 




457 


251,565 


.4S1 


111,115 .213 


4 


Baltimore, Md 


549-079 


9.569 




174 


531,787 


■ 969 






■^ 


Detroit, Mich 


426,592 


12,334 




280 


670,119 


I -570 


29,746 


.069 


6 


Buffalo, N. Y 


405,714 


35,020 




086 


145,798 


-359 


53,086 


.131 


7 


San Francisco. Cal. . 


402,836 


33,718 




084 


674,194 


.167 


19,683 


.048 


8 


Milwaukee, Wis. . . 


350,852 


56,105 




160 


263,393 


-751 


93,589 


.238 


9 


Newark, N.J 


322,784 


23,672 




073 


1,360,293 


.421 


94,482 


• 293 


10 


New Orleans, La. . 


329,207 


32,485 




098 


185,257 


-.563 


121,239 


-369 


II 


Washington, D. C. 


321,128 


112,087 




349 


2,697,137 


8.403 


3,543,064 


1 .103 


12 


Los Angeles, Cal. . . 


270,491 


66,147 




245 


1,029,542 


3.813 


13,721 


.051 


13 


Minneapolis, Minn. 


286,241 


57,616 


.202 


210,196 


-735 


14,3801 .050 



''From the above table it will be seen that Baltimore, as com- 
pared with other cities, secured the smallest amount per capita 
from licenses and permits, was fifth in the amount per capita 
received from taxes, seventh in amount received from fines and 
forfeits, and tenth in amount per capita received from subven- 



366 



Educational Administration 



tions and grants from other civil divisions for education, while 
nothing was received from subventions and grants for other pur- 
poses. Had Baltimore received as much per capita from licenses 
and permits as the median city, about $318,000 would have been 
added to its resources in 1908; and had as much been raised per 
capita from taxes as the median city, about $445,000 would have 
been added to its available funds for 1908. While it is true, on 
the other hand, that the subvention received from the State for 
educational purposes was paid by this city, and still more in 
addition, as the State school tax, the same may be said of other 
cities. In fact it seems almost universally true that cities pay 
more into the State treasuries than they receive back from them, 
and it is altogether probable that Baltimore fares no worse in 
this respect than most cities." 

That conditions are much the same now as when Professor 
Elliott made his investigation is indicated by the following tables 
from Dr. Updegraff's "Expenses of City School Systems" which 
is based on the latest data available.^ 

TABLE 126 

Distribution of Ratios or Total School Expenses to Population 



Ratio 



Number of Cities 



Group I Group II Group III Group IV Total 



1.50 
2.00 



to I 

to 2 
to 2 

to 3 
to 3 
to 4 
to 4 
to 5 
to 5 



2.50 

3.00 

3 50 

4.00 

4-50 

5.00 

5-50 _ ,. 

6.00 to 6.49. 



^ Harlan Updegraff, A Study of Expenses of City School Systems. 
of Education, Bulletin, 191 2, No. 5. 



U. S. Bureau 



Expenditures for Schools in Relation to Others 367 

TABLE 127 
Distribution of Ratios of School Expenses to Total City Expenses 



Ratio 



.15 to 


•199 


.20 to 


.249 


25 to 


■299 


30 to 


•349 


35 to 


•399 


.40 to 


•449 


.50 to 


•549 


•55 to 


•599 



Group I 



Number of Cities 



Group II Group III 



Group IV 



Total 





4 
11 




10 




28 




19 


4 


17 


3 


II 


3 


3 



TABLE 128 
Distribution of Ratios of School Expenses to Expenses for Police 



1 . 00 to I 


49 


1 . 50 to I 


99 


2 . 00 to 2 


49 


2 . 50 to 2 


99 


3.00 to 3 


49 


3 • 50 to 3 


99 


4 . GO to 4 


49 


4 . 50 to 4 


99 


5 . 00 to 5 


49 


550 to 5 


99 


6 . 00 to 6 


49 


6 . 50 to 6 


99 


7.00 to 7 


49 


7 . 50 to 7 


99 


8.00 to 8 


49 



Ratio 



Number of Cities 



Group I 



Group II 



Group III : Group IV 



Total 



§ 24- The Apportionment of School Funds 

We are in the habit of claiming that in our country there is 
equal opportunity for every boy or girl by reason of our great 
systems of free public education. Often we overlook the fact 
that communities differ very greatly in the educational opportu- 
nity which they offer. When we find a community in which the 
schools are markedly inferior, we are apt to characterize the place 
as unprogressive. The largest problem that we face in our state 
school systems is that of equalizing the educational opportunity 
offered to the children of the rural community, the village or 
town, and the city. Along with the shift of population from the 
country to the- city there has come a corresponding concentration 
of wealth in these larger centers. Many communities are to-day 
poorer than they were fifty years ago, while on the other hand 
the per capita of other wealthy places may have increased ten or 
even fifty fold. 

It has long been an accepted principle of taxation that ability 
to pay is the only adequate measure of the amounts of tax to be 
paid. The older idea that a man paid for certain benefits he 
received was essentially non-social and impossible of acceptance 
in a democratic society. State taxes for the support of public 
education have become the rule in our American Common- 
wealths, and yet there is as yet no commonly recognized principle 
of distribution which adequately equalizes the burden imposed 
upon the various civil divisions within the states. If men or 
communities should pay taxes in proportion to their abihty to 
pay, it follows that a uniform state tax must be distributed on 
some basis other than that upon which the tax is levied in order 
to equalize the burden of taxation. 

No one would to-day deny that education is a state function. 

368 



The Apportionment of School Funds 369 

Indeed, if the national government had the power, it might be 
argued that the only adequate organization and support of educa- 
tion must be nation wide. Boys and girls do not stay where they 
grow up. Our population is mobile. The education received by 
A in a New England village community may make for his effec- 
tive participation in the hfe of some other community within the 
state in which he lives, in some large city in New England, or in 
some remote section of the country. The fact the national gov- 
ernment aids schools of agriculture and engineering and the 
agitation for a national subsidy for the teaching of industrial 
and household arts is not without significance in indicating pos- 
sible future development. As the situation stands at present the 
equalization of opportunity in education as well as the equaliza- 
tion of the burden of taxation in support of schools rests almost 
wholly with our states. By means of state school taxes distrib- 
uted in such a way as to equalize the burden which each com- 
munity must bear, we may hope to secure a degree of equality of 
opportunity within our states which does not to-day exist. 

The only adequate investigation of the apportionment of state 
school funds is Professor Ellwood P. Cubberley's [1905] ''School 
Funds and Their Apportionment." In the pages which follow 
are given a few of the tables presented by Professor Cubberley 
in his most adequate treatment of this subject. The tables are 
in the main self-explanatory. The line of reasoning advanced 
will be best understood by presenting first Professor Cubberley's 
conclusions. The other order would, of course, be preferable 
were it possible to present here a more detailed abstract of the 
investigation. 

" That of the different single bases used for the apportionment 
of funds, ' taxes- where-paid ' and the property- valuation bases 
have no educational significance, and do not tend to equalize 
either the burdens or the advantages of education. 

'^ That the use of total population as a basis of apportionment 



370 Educational Administration 

while an improvement over ' taxes- where-paid ' or property- 
valuation, is at best only a rough and unreliable method of 
approximately determining the number of children for whose 
education provision is to be made. 

'' That the use of the school census basis for the apportionment 
of funds, as required by so many state constitutions, and as used 
in whole or in part by thirty-eight different states, though an 
improvement over the other apportionment bases so far men- 
tioned, is, nevertheless, one of the worst and most unjust bases 
of apportionment we have in use, and its complete abandonment 
in the future for some better single basis or for a combination 
basis plan is greatly to be desired. 

" That total enrollment, enrollment for a definite period, aver- 
age membership, average daily attendance, and aggregate days' 
attendance are each successive improvements over the census 
basis of apportionment, and each places a premium on more 
efforts which a community ought to be encouraged to make than 
the one preceding it. 

'' That all these bases are defective when used alone, because 
none make any better provision for the needs of the small school 
than is made under the census basis of apportionment, while 
aggregate days' attendance, used alone, would leave the small 
school in even worse financial condition. 

' ' That the real unit of cost is the teacher who must be employed 
to teach the school, and not the children who may or do attend, 
and that the teacher actually employed should accordingly 
occupy a prominent place in any general apportionment plan, the 
remainder being given on a basis which considers regularity of 
attendance at the school. 

" That more equitable results could be obtained by distributing 
all funds on the basis of teachers actually employed than on any 
other single basis and that the general adoption of this basis 
would be an improvement over the census basis, but that the 



The Apportionment of School Funds 371 

best results can only be obtained by a combination of two or 
more bases, and hence a combination basis type of apportion- 
ment is preferable to any single basis type. 

'' That, where the fund at hand for distribution is large enough 
to permit of the use of such a plan, the best basis for the distribu- 
tion of funds is a combination of teacher-actually-employed and 
aggregate days' attendance (or average daily attendance multi- 
plied by length of term). 

" That if this combination basis of apportionment were adopted 
by many of the states now using the census basis of apportion- 
ment, the minimum demands of the states could, in most cases, 
be substantially increased without increasing the general school 
tax. 

'' That it is both just and desirable that the efforts made by 
communities to provide secondary education and many of the 
more recent advantages of education, such as kindergartens, 
manual training, evening schools, etc., should be recognized by 
the state in making the apportionment of funds, and that an 
incentive should be given to communities to provide these advan- 
tages for their children. 

" That even after a distribution has been made on such a com- 
bination basis as that mentioned above there still probably would 
be heavy burdens to be borne by some poorer communities, in 
which case a certain "reserve fund" should be set aside, to be 
distributed by some responsible educational body, for the rehef 
of those communities which have made the maximum effort 
allowed by law and yet are unable to meet the minimum demands 
of the state, and those whose peculiar circumstances make some 
additional assistance particularly desirable. 

'' That the state, in making the apportionment to the counties, 
ought to use as good an apportionment basis as is used by the 
counties themselves in making the apportionment to the town- 
ships or districts. The use of a good combination basis of appor- 



372 Educational Administration 

tionment within the counties cannot overcome the inequalities 
created between the counties when the state apportionment is 
made on an essentially inferior basis, as for example, census. 
The best plan would seem to be that the state and county appor- 
tionments be made on essentially the same combinations basis, 
the state apportionment being made to the counties instead of to 
the townships or districts only that any county funds may first 
be added before making the township or district apportionment. 

" In states having no state school tax and only a relatively small 
income from the permanent school fund of the state, this income' 
ought to be reserved, in part at least, for use in aiding necessitous 
communities and as subsidies to encourage the introduction of 
new and desirable advantages, and it should not be distributed 
indiscriiAinately to all. 

'' That the present plans in use for the apportionment of school 
funds in fully three-fourths of the states of the Union are in need 
of careful revision, and that there is likewise need for a more care- 
ful study of this problem than has been given it so far by most of 
the states if it is desired that future evolution shall take place 
along more intelligent Hnes than has been the case in the past." 

The tables which follow show clearly the inequalities due to 
the methods of distribution commonly used. One does not need 
to argue at length in favor of the plan suggested by Professor 
Cubberley of distributing on the per teacher actually employed 
and aggregate days attended bases. Teachers' salaries represent 
from sixty to eighty per cent of the school budget. Encourage- 
ment should certainly be given to those communities which keep 
children in school. 



The Apportionment of School Funds 



373 



TABLE 129 

Average Valuation of Massachusetts Counties, Per Census Child 5- 
Years of Age, with the Rate of Increase or Decrease ^ 



15 





Census, 5-15 Years 


Av. Valuation per 
Census Child 


Rate of change 


County 


1871 


IQOI 


1871 


1901 


In Census 


In Wealth 
per Child 


Barnstable 

Berkshire 

Bristol 


6,669 

13,085 

19,979 

762 

38,639 
6,068 

13,787 
8,665 
52,211 
665 
18,045 
12,846 
49-722 
37,116 


4,199 
17,661 

45,971 

584 

59,261 

7,187 

32,121 

10,312 

96,305 

391 

26,479 

18,619 

103,062 

60,959 


$2,075 
2,961 

4-317 
3,060 
3-650 
2,445 
4,015 
2,943 
4,818 
2.782 
4,642 
2,394 
12,624 
3,284 

5,381 


$5,956 
3,489 
4,173 
7,363 
4,651 
3,222 

4,707 
3-294 
5,486 
8,685 
7,974 
4,453 
11,584 
4,068 

6,279 


-37% 

+35% 
+ 129% 

—22% 

+ 53% 

+ 18% 

+ 135% 

+ 19% 

+ 84% 
-70% 
+47% 
+45% 
+ 107% 
+64% 

+ 73% 


+ 186% 
+ iS% 

-03% 

+140% 


Dukes 


Essex 


+ ^9% 


Franklin 

Hampden 

Hampshire 

Middlesex 

Nantucket 

Norfolk 

Plymouth 

Suffolk. . . . 


+32% 
+ 17% 
+ 12% 
+ 13% 
+ 215% 
+ 72% 
+86% 
— C9% 


Worcester 


+ 24% 


The State 


278,249 


483,103 


+ 16% 



'■ 35th An. Rcpt. Bd. Educ 
tables, pp. 154-172. 

66th An. Kept. Bd. Educ, Mass 



Uass., for the year 1S71, pp. 117-132, vrith statistical 
for 1901-2. 



374 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 130 

Rate of Tax Levied and Amount Produced, with Relative Rank, of Twenty- 
One Massachusetts Towns and Cities, 1901-02 

(Data selected from Graduated Tables I and II in 66th An. Rept. Bd. Ednc, Mass. 
1901-02, in ''Abstract of School Returns" for the year) 



City or Towni 



Seven levying highest rate — 

West Boylston 

Warren 

East Longmeadow 

Huntington 

Groveland 

Dighton 

Abington 

Seven largest cities — 

Boston 

Worcester 

Fall River 

Lowell 

Cambridge 

Lynn. 

New Bedford 

Seven levying lowest rate — 

Brookline 

Hull 

Tolland 

Goshen 

Manchester 

Chilmark 

Nahant 

Gosnold 



Rank in 
Amount 
Levied 



3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

333 
192 
260 
194 
219 
196 
287 

346 
347 
348 
349 
350 
351 
352 
353 



Rate of 

Local Tax 

Levied 



20 mills 

79 " 

56 " 

50 " 

29 " 

18 " 

94 " 

39 " 

61 " 

89 " 

58 " 

33 " 

56 '' 

46 '' 

91 " 

73 " 

61 " 

50 " 

37 " 

31 " 

ID " 

85 " 



Amt. Produced 
per Pupil in Av. 
Memb. in School 



$22.33 
19.17 
14.17 
15.88 
18.92 
24. II 
25-44 

33-86 

28.45 
22.03 

30-73 
29-51 
28.65 
26.99 

51.68 

45-75 
4.00 

4-43 
33-72 

9-37 
52.10 

10.53 



Rank in 
Amount 
Produced 



131 
216 

303 

277 
221 

95 

75 

15 
40 
137 
21 
28 
38 
42 

3 

7 

350 

351 

16 

343 
2 

336 



^ The poorer towns received state aid in addition, which the cities did not. 



The Apportionment of School Funds 



37S 



TABLE 131 

An Analysis of the Returns for Fairfield County, Connecticut, for the 
School Year 1901-02 

(Calculated from data given in the Rept. Conn. Bd. Educ. for 1903, statistical tables, 
pp. 260, 261, 274, and 283) 



Towns 



Total 
Valuation 



Census 4-16 Yrs. 
I Oct., 1901 



Valuation 
per Child 



No. of Schools 
(Depts.) 



Bridgeport. . . 
Danbury. . . . 

Bethel 

Brook field. . . 

Darien 

Easton 

Fairfield 

Greenwich. . . 
Huntington . . 

Monroe 

New Canaan. 
New Fairfield. 

Newton 

Nor walk 

Redding 

Ridgefield. . . . 

Sherman 

Stamford. . . . 

Stratford 

Trumbull. . . . 

Weston 

Westport. ... 
Wilton 



$61,560,175 
7,978,801 
1,189,543 

431,200 
2,606,241 

489,310 
3,360,460 
8,758,830 
4,112,611 

357.500 
1,939,190 

341,064 

1,565,763 
1^,840,031 

575,274 

1,879,961 

324,802 

10,531,321 

1,437,031 
642,293 
298,184 

2,319,055 
870,014 



The County $127,408,654 



17,369 
4,641 

715 
196 

443 
189 

953 

2,662 

1,332 
194 

594 
128 

565 

4,632 

217 

549 
128 

4,567 
904 
322 
155 
853 
374 

42,682 



$3,544 
1,764 
1,663 
2,200 
5,883 
2,588 
3,526 
3,294 
3,086 

1,843 
3,265 
2,664 
2,771. 
2,984 
2,651 
3,424 
2,539 
2,306 

1,589 
1,995 
1,924 
2,719 
2,324 

$2,985 



219 
67 



II 
9 

17 
50 
26 

7 
17 

6 
22 

71 

8 

17 
6 

92 

17 

8 

5 
14 
II 

726 






Educational A dministration 



TABLE 131 {Continued) 



Towns 



Bridgeport. . , 
Danbury. . . . 

Bethel 

Brookfield. . . 

Darien 

Easton 

Fairfield. . . . , 
Greenwich. . . 
Huntington. . 

Monroe 

New Canaan. 
New Fairfield 

Newton 

Nor walk. . . . 

Redding 

Ridgefield. . . 
Sherman. . . . 
Stamford. . . . 
Stratford. . . . 
Trumbull. . . . 

Weston 

WestDort. . . . 
Wilton 

The County. . 



Av. Valuation 

Per School 

(Dept.) 



$281,097 

119,088 

66,085 

53,900 

236,840 

54,364 
197,674 

175,177 
158,177 

51,071 
113,481 

56,844 

71,171 
194,930 

71,909 
110,586 

54,134 
144,471 

84,531 
80,287 

58,037 

165,646 

78,183 

Si75,494 



Rate of Tax 

in Mills 
for $250 



.88 mills 
2.10 " 

3-79 " 
4.64 " 



1.05 
4.60 

1 . 26 

1-43 
1.68 
4.90 

2. 20 
4.40 

3-51 
1.28 
3-48 
2. 26 
4.61 

1-73 
2.96 

313 
4-33 
I-5I 
319 

1.42 



Rate of Local 

Tax Levied 

1901-02 



3 


26 mi 


4 

7 


40 " 
16 " 


4 


55 " 


2 


45 " 


4 


43 '' 


3 


19 '' 


2 


43 " 


3 


20 " 


4 


25 " 


4 
3 


29 " 
89 " 


3 


97 " 


2 
2 
2 


93 " 
96 " 
89 " 


3 
6 


47 " 
78 " 


6 


76 " 


5 


19 " 


3 

I 


07 " 
85 " 


2 


79 " 



Cost per Pupil 

in Av. Dy. Att. 

for Maint. 



$28 
24 
18 
20 

Z2, 
21 
29 
24 
19 
17 
26 
22 
24 
22 
20 
20 
19 
30 
21 
25 
19 
14 
15 



$23.18 



TABLE 132 

Illustrating Inequalities Existing in the State of Missouri 

(Calculated for the school year 1903-04 from statistical data given in the Rept. 

State Siipt. of Pub. Instr. of Mo., 1904) 



Counties 



Adair 

Andrew 

Atchison ^ 

Audrain 

Barry 

Barton 

Bates 

Benton 

St. Louis, City. 

The State 



Total 
Valuation 



$5,500,000 
7,572,928 

8,389,345 
8,752,360 
4,515,310 

5,998,313 

10,169,171 

4,291,470 

415,824,520 



Census 
4-20 
Years 



6,800 
5,020 
4,775 
7,549 
8,368 

5,817 
8,907 

5,437 
178,260 



Av. Val. 

per 
Census 
Child 



1,508 
1,757 
1,336 
539 
1,031 
1,142 

789 
2,331 



$1,284,294,571 99^,536 .$1,290 17,036 $75,387 



No. Trs. 
Employed 



151 
108 
126 
146 

137 
141 

173 
109 

i,8S9 



Av. Val. 

per Tr. 

Employed 



$36,423 
70,119 
66,582 
59,263 
32,958 
42,540 
58,781 
39,371 

223,682 



Tax in 

Mills 

for $250 

per Tr. 



6.86 

3-56 

3-75 
4. 22 
7.58 
5-87 
4-25. 
6.34 
I . II 

332 



^ Due to an evident typographical error in the Report for 1904, the figures for 
this county were taken from the Report for 1903. 



The Apportionment of School Funds 



111 



TABLE 133 

Illustrating Inequalities E.xisting in the State of California 

(Calculated for the school year 1903-04 {rom data given in the statistical tables of 
the 2isi Bien. Rcpt. Supt. Pub. Instr., Cc!., 1903-04) 



Counties 


Total 
Valuation 


Census 
5-17 Years 




Av. Val. 

per Tr. 

Employed 


Tax in 

Mills 

for $250 

per Tr. 




$128,681,766 

422,063 

4,918,908 

16,057,766 

6,177,275 
12,188,096 
21,753,956 

2,882,445 
564,070,301 


34,939 
78 
2,389 
4,677 
2,631 
1,858 

4,897 
678 

97,353 


$3,362 
5,411 
2,059 
3,433 
2,348 
6,559 
4,442 

4,251 
5,794 

$3,923 


575 

3 

63 

108 

73 
53 
98 
18 
996 


$223,620 

140,688 

78,236 

148,683 

84,620 

229,964 
221,979 
160,136 
566,336 

$205,028 




Alpine 


1.77 

3-i8 
1.68 
2.q6 
I 08 


Amador. . . 


Butte. . . 


Calaveras 

Colusa 


Contra Costa. . . . 

Del Norte 

vSan Francisco. . . . 


I -13 

1.56 

•44 


The State 


$1,598,603,226 


407,398 


7,797 


1.22 



TABLE 134 

Highest and Lowest Rate of Tax in Mills Necessary to Produce $250 by 
Local Tax'.^tion, with State Averages 

(Compiled from the preceding tables) 



Table 


Item 


Rate of Taxation in Mills 


Number 


Highest 


Lowest 


Average 


2 


S7 Massachusetts towns 


II .62 
2.97 

8.41 

4.90 

11-57 

7.58 

10.88 
3-i8 

10.41 


•36 
1.42 

1-35 
.88 
•72 

3-56 

390 
•44 

1.76 




6 


8 Connecticut counties 






State of Connecticut 


1-75 
2 68 


7 
8 


15 towns of Windham Co. 


23 towns of Fairfield Co.. . . . 


1.42 


10 






State of Wisconsin 


1-95 


II 


8 Missouri counties 




State of Missouri 


3-32 


12 


8 Kansas counties. . 


13 


9 California counties 




State of California 


I 22 


14 


10 Indiana counties 




State of Indiana 


2.99 







378 



Educational Administration 



TABLE 135 

Summary of Statistical Tables Showing Wealth, Tax Rate, and Cost of 
School by Counties ^ 



Per Capita Wealth- 
Lowest 

Highest 

Medium 

Local Rate, per $100 of tax- 
ables — 

Lowest 

Highest 

Medium 

Annual Per Capita Cost per 
Pupil Enrolled — 

Lowest 

Highest 

Medium 



Massachusetts 



%35-00 

1,982.00 

700 . 00 



2>2> 
88 

395 



$19.00 
46.50 
31.90 



Washington 



$44 • 00 

2,436.00 

640 . 00 



$11.00 
45.00 
20.00 



New York 



$328.00 

1,507.00 

682.00 



. 21 
•83 

•395 



^16.00 
73.00 
26.50 



Indiana 



$222.00 

i,375-oo 

576.50 



•15 
I . II 

•63 



fii .00 
42.00 
21.50 



For the state of New York, a state in which total population 
is used as a partial basis for the apportionment of state funds, 
similar calculations from the returns of the School Commissioners 
for the first fifteen counties, as arranged in alphabetical order, 
cities omitted, give the results ^ shown in Table 136. 

1 Charles S. Meek, Stale and Local Taxation for Public Schools. Teachers College 
Record, Vol. XI, No. 5. All of the other tables are from Professor Cubberley's 
study. 

2 Calculated from data given in tables 3 and 4 of the Kept. Supt. Pub. Instr. of 
New York, 1902, Vol. II. The calculations are based on the National Census of 
1900, the biennial state school census of 1901, and the number of teachers employed 
for the school year 1 900-1 901. 



The Apportionment of School Funds 



379 



TABLE 136 

The Relation of the Number of Children and of Teachers to the Whole 

Population 



County 



Albany. . , . 
Allegany. . . 
Broome. . . , 
Cattaraugus 
Cayuga. . . . 
Chatauqua. 
Chemung. . , 
Chenango. . 



Children of 
Census Age 



20.1% 

21.5% 
20.4% 
19-7% 
19-2% 
21.4% 
21.5% 
19.0% 



Teachers 

Employed 

per 1,000 

Inhabs. 



County 



Clinton. . 
Columbia 
Cortland. 
Delaware. 
Dutchess, 

Erie 

Essex. . . . 



Children of 
Census Age 



27.5% 
18.8% 
19.0% 
20.3% 
18.2% 
25-0% 
23-0% 



Teachers 

Employed 

per 1,000 

Inhabs. 



7.2 
6.2 
10.5 
9.6 
50 

5-9 
9-7 



TABLE 137 

Percentage Enrolled and the Value of the State Apportionment on En- 
rollment for Certain Wisconsin Counties 

(Calculated on the basis of the census of the summer of 1903 and the enrollment 
for the school year 1903-04, from statistical data given in the Rept. Supt. Pub. 
Instr., Wis., for 1903-04) 



Counties, Including Cities Censu^ ^A-20 

Under a City Superintendent Years Enrolled 

Adam.s 77% 

Ashland* 65% 

Barron 74% 

Bayfield 74% 

Brownf 51% 

Buffalo 67% 

Burnett 70% 

Calumet 5°% 

Milwaukee^ 43% 

* City of Ashland, alone 61% 

t City of Green Bay, alone 56% 

X City of Milwaukee, alone 41% 

State of Wisconsin, average 61% 

State, cities omitted 65% 

Cities alone 52% 



V^alue of $1.82 K Census 
Apportionment on 
Actual Enrollment 



$2.37 
2.81 
2.46 
2.46 
358 
2.73 
2.61 
3-65 
4.24 



•99 
.26 

•45 

.69 
.81 
•SI 



38o 



Educational A dministration 



TABLE 138 
What $1.00 of Census Apportionment is Worth on Total Enrollment 



Counties, in Alphabetical 
Order, and Cities 



Wis. 


Kan. 


Mo. 


Cal. 


$1.30 


$1.49 


$1.25 


$1.43 


1-54 


2.22 




97 




28 


1-35 


I. 16 




05 




28 


1-35 


1-54 




28 




17 


1 .96 


2.08 




00 




32 


1.49 


1. 19 




07 




20 


1-43 


I . II 




II 




15 


2.00 


1. 16 




29 




28 


2.44 


1-73 


2 


08 




56 


1.89 


1-59 


2 


17 


1 


1.92 


1.52 


3 


59 


1 



Ind. 



ISt 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

Largest city 

Second largest city 
Third largest city. 



$1.45 
2.08 

1-35 
1 . 20 
1 . 26 
1 . 22 
1.32 
1.25 
1.47 
2.17 
2.38 



TABLE 



139 



Showing What Small Country Schools of Certain Sizes in Wisconsin Would 
Receive Under Certain Plans of Apportionment, Basing Calcula- 
tions ON Total Apportionment, Census, Enrollment, and Estimated 
Average Daily Attendance 

(Calculated for 1903-04 from statistical data given in the Rept. Supt. Pub. Instr., 
Wis., 1903-04. See similar preceding tables. The different apportionment 
values are calculated on the state averages, but the percentages used in the table 
are those for town and country schools only) 





Enrollment 
at State 
Average 
without 
Cities, 
of 65% 


Amount of State Aid Apportioned on 


Census, 
4-20 Years 


Census, 
4-20 Years 
of Age, at 


Total 

Enrollment 

at $2.99 


Forty-day | Av. Dy. Att. 
Enrollment j at 70% of 
with 20% loss, Enrollment, 
at $3-5^ and at $4.15 


II 

16 

23 

31 

39 

46 

&2 

77 

92 

108 

123 

137 


7 
10+ 
15 
20+ 

25 + 

30 

40+ 

50 

60— 

70+ 

80 

89 


$20 

29 
41 

56 

71 

83 

113 
140 

167 

197 

224 
250 


08 

20 

98 
38 

18 

95 
15 
53 
90 
10 
48 
03 


$20 

29 

44 

59 

74 

89 

119 

149 

179 

209 

239 
266 


93 
90 
85 
80 

75 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
II 


$21 . 12 

28.16 

42.24 

56.32 

70.40 

84.48 

1 1 2 . 64 

140.80 

168.96 

197.12 

224.38 

249.92 


$20 
29 
41 
58 
70 

87 
116 

145 
174 
203 
232 
257 


75 
05 
50 
10 

55 
15 
20 

25 
30 
35 
40 
30 



^ Data for calculation lacking. 



The Apportionment of School Funds 



381 



TABLE 140 

Apportionments of Four Schools Comp.-^red on the Census, Total Enroll- 
ment, Forty-day Enrollment, and Average Daily Attendance Bases 





State No. i 


State No. 2 




Per Cent 


Number 


Per Cent 


Number 


Total school census of each district 

Per cent of census enrolled 


100% 

If/o 
15% 

60% 
lo7o 

50% 


40 
30 

25-5 

18 
21 
15 


100% 
80% 
19% 

75% 
85% 
65% 


40 

\2 


Loss on a forty-day enrollment 

Av. Dy. Att. on enrollment — 
The general state avera°^e 


259 

24 
27 . 2 


Averages of Districts A and B 


Averages of Districts C and D 


20.8 







On a basis of a per-capita on census apportionment of $i.oo 
this gives the following per-capita values for the state apportion- 
ment in each state: 

TABLE 141 



Apportionment on census 

Apportionment on total enrollment 

Apportionment on forty-day enrollment. . . . 
Apportionment on average daily attendance 



Sta'.e No. 2 




Using the above values for calculation we get the following for 
a school of forty census children, calculated on the state averages: 





On Census 


On Total. 
Enrollment 


On Forty-day 
Enrollment 


On Av. 
Dy. Att. 


State No. i 

State No. 2 


$40 . 00 
40.00 


$40 . 00 
40.00 


$40 . 00 
40.00 


$40 . 00 
40.00 



This is only a natural result. There being only so much money 
to be distributed, a school, whatever its size, will always get the 
same amount of money on any basis of distribution, so long as the 



382 



Educational Administration 



average for the school is the same as the average for the state. 
It is only when the school varies from the state average that it 
gains or loses. This may be shown by making similar calculations 
for the four schools, A, B, C, and D, which varied from the state 
averages in average daily attendance, as given above. Doing 
this, we get the following result: 



District 


On Census 


On Enrollment 


On Average 

State No. i 


Daily Attendance 

State No. 2 


A 


$40 . 00 
40.00 
40.00 

40.00 


$40 . 00 
40.00 
40.00 
40.00 


$46.66 
33-33 




B 

C .... 


$45-33 


I). . . . 


34.66 






TAB 


LE 142 









Income of a City School and a Small Country School Compared Under the 
Census, Average Daily Attendance, and Aggregate Days' Attendance 
Bases 



School 

Country 

City 

School 

Country 

City 



Census 



Enrollment 



20 
50 



Av. Dy. Att. 



14-5 
36.5 



Term 



127 days 

200 " 



Census 
at $2.90 



$84.10 
211 . 70 



Value of State Apportionment 



Av. Dy. Att. 

at $5-36 



$77-72 
195-64 



Av. Dy. Att. X Term at sKc 
per Pupil per Day 



i4.5Xi27X.03>^ = $64.45 
36 . 5 X 200X . o3>^ = 256 . 30 



The Apportionment of School Funds 



^^?> 



TABLE 143 

Effect of an Apportionment on Census and on Teachers Compared for 
Certain Wisconsin Counties 



County 



Adams. . . . 
Ashland. . . 
Barron. . . , 
Bayfield. . . 
Brown. . . . 
Buffalo. . . 
Burnett. . . 
Calumet. . 
Milwaukee 



Tax in Mills 

to Raise $250 

per Teacher 



•75 
.14 

•83 
•03 
•56 
.04 
•57 
•44 
.72 



Av. Value of 

State Apport, 

per Teacher 

Employed 



$46 
96 
84 
84 

176 

87 
60 

134 
193 



Tax in Mills 

for Balance 

of $250 per 

Teacher 



Value of 


State Apport. 
on Teacher 


Basis 


$103.36 


103 


36 


103 


36 


103 


36 


103 


36 


103 


36 


103 


36 


103 


36 


103 


36 



Tax in Mills 

for Balance 

of $250 per 

Teacher 



96 
90 

41 
18 
86 

74 
07 
84 
42 1 



TABLE 144 

Effect of an Apportionment on Census and on Teachers Compared for 
Certain Missouri Counties 



Counties 



Adair 

Andrew 

Atchison 

Audrain 

Barry 

Barton 

Bates 

Benton 

St. Louis (City) 



Tax in Mills 
to Raise $250 



Av. Value 


State Apport. 


per Teacher 


Employed 


$ 58.14 


60 


00 


47 


00 


57 


91 


78 


85 


53 


26 


66 


46 


64 


39 


123 


79 



Tax in Mills 


for Balance 


of $250 


5-27 


2 


70 


3 


05 


3 


24 


5 


20 


4 


60 


3 


12 


4 


70 




56 



Value of 

State Apport. 

on Teacher 

Basis 



•44 
■44 
•44 
■44 
•44 
•44 
•44 
•44 
•44 



Tax in Mills 

for Balance 

of $250 



5^07 
2.49 
2.62 
2^93 
5 29 
4. II 

2.97 
4^43 
•78^ 



1 To produce the balance of $500 instead of $250 per teacher employed, this rate 
would be only i .85 mills; and to produce the balance of $800 per teacher, the rate 
would be but 3 . 24 mills. 

2 To produce the balance of $500 instead of $250 per teacher employed, this 
rate would be only i . 15 mills, and to produce the balance of $750 per teacher, the 
rate would be but 1.87 mills. 



384 Educational Administration 

It is interesting to note that since Professor Cubberley's inves- 
tigation was published several states have undertaken to revise 
the basis for apportioning their school moneys. In two of them 
at least, to the writer's personal knowledge, Dr. Cubberley's 
book was continually consulted by the legislative committee 
which prepared the bill embodying the new basis of apportion- 
ment. 

The plan not uncommonly found of giving special aid for the 
newer types of educational endeavor is to-day receiving wide 
recognition in the special subsidies which are being granted for 
industrial schools. Doubtless it will always be necessary to 
reserve a part of the state money for the encouragement of those 
educational experiments which need not simply state aid but 
also the stamp of approval thus given. 

Along with the provision made through the equitable distribu- 
tion of school funds for equality of educational opportunity and 
of the burden sustained in supporting education, there should 
be developed a system of fines or penalties, enforced by withhold- 
ing state funds, which will operate to secure the enforcement of 
the educational laws of the state. A community which fails to 
enforce the compulsory education law, which violates the regula- 
tions with respect to proper school accommodations, which hires 
a teacher whose training is less than that required by law, or 
which in any other way falls below the minimum standard estab- 
lished by the state can be made to recognize the importance of 
compliance with state regulations without difficulty when the 
state money is withheld wholly or in part. Unless some such 
penalty is attached the least progressive communities, the one 
for which the minimum standards of efficiency are made, will 
have little respect for the laws enacted for the benefit of the 
children of the state. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF REFERENCES IN THE TEXT 



Ayres, L. p. 
Blan, L. B. 



BONSER, F. G. 

Bryan, J. E. 

COFFMAN, L. D. 
CORNilAN, O. p. 

cubberley, e. p. 
Earhart, L. B. 
Elliott, E. C. 
Hillegas, M. B. 

Jessup, W. a. 
Keyes, C. H. 



1909 
1911 



1910 



1907 



191 1 



1908 



1905 



1908 



1905 



1912 



1911 



1911 



Laggards in Our Schools. 

A Special Study of the Incidence of Retarda- 
tion. Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 
sity, Coiitribulioiis to Education, No. 40. 

The Reasoning Ability of Children of the 
Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth School Grades. 
Teachers College, Cohimbia University, Con- 
tributions to Education, No. 37. 

A Method for Determining the Extent and 
Causes of Retardation in a City School 
System. Psychological Clinic, vol. i, pp. 
41-52. 

The Social Composition of the Teaching Pop- 
ulation. Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 
sity, Contributions to Education, No, 41. 

The Retardation of the Pupils of Five City 
School Systems. Psychological Clinic, 
vol. I, pp. 245-257. 

School Funds and Their Apportionment. 
TeacJiers College, Columbia University, Con- 
tributions to Education, No. 2. 

Systematic Study in the Elementary School. 
Teachers College, Columbia University, Con- 
tributions to Education, No. 18. 

Some Fiscal Aspects of Education. Teachers 
College, Columbia University, Contributions 
to Education, No. 6. 

A Scale for the Measurement of Quality 
in English Composition by Young Peo- 
ple. Teachers College Record, Vol. XIII, 
No. 4. 

Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision. 
Teachers College, Columbia University, Con- 
tributions to Education, No. 43. 

Progress Through the Grades of City Schools. 
'Teachers College, Cohimbia University, Con- 
tributions to Education, No. 42. 
2>^S 



386 

Meek, C. S. 
Meriam, J. L. 

Payne, B. R. 

Stone, C. W. 

Strayer, G. D. 
Thorndike, E. L. 
Thorndike, E. L. 

Updegraff, H. 

Van Denburg, J. K. 



Bibliography 

19 lo State and Local Taxation for Public Schools. 
Teachers College Record, Vol. XI., No. 5. 

1905 Normal School Education and Efficiency in 
Teaching. Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, Contributions to Education, No. i. 

1905 Elementary School Curricula. 

Report of the Commission Appointed to 
Study the System of Education in the 
Public Schools of Baltimore. U. S. Bureau 
of Education Bulletin, No. 4, 191 1. 

1908 Arithmetical Abilities and Some of the Factors 
Determining Them. Teachers College, Co- 
lumbia University, Contributions to Educa- 
tion, No. 19. 

1905 City School Expenditures. Teachers College, 
Columbia University, Contributions to Educa- 
tion, No. 5. 

1908 The Elimination of Pupils from School. Bul- 

letin, No. 4, 1907, Whole Number 379, oi 
the U. S. Bureau of Education. 

1909 The Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in 

the United States: Amount of Education, 
Length of Experience, Salaries. BuHetin, 
1909, No. 4, Whole Number 404, of the 
U. S. Bureau of Education, 

191 2 A Study of the Expenses of City School Sys- 
tems, 

19 n Causes of the Elimination of Students in 
Public Secondary Schools of New York 
City. Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 
sity, Contributions to Education, No. 47. 



INDEX 



Abilities in arithmetic in relation to en- 
vironment, 240 

Ability in entrance examinations related 
to ability in each year of college work, 
177, 184 flf. 

Abihty, in relation to elimination, 50 ff., 

53 
Acceleration, causes of, 41 ff. 
Age-grade table, 260 
Age-grade tables, significance of, 3 ff. 
Age, in relation to grade of pupils, 3 ff.; 
of leaving school, 5, 8, 12 f., 15 ff.; 
of entrance to school, 41; of entrance 
to high school, 48, 51 f.; of teachers 
at entrance to teaching, 104 
Apportionment of school funds, 368 ff. 
Arithmetical abihties and some of the 
factors determining them, 233 ff.; pre- 
liminary tests, 233 ff.; what the scores 
measure, 235; scores for twenty-six 
school systems, 236 ff.; ratio of time 
expended to abihties, 238 
Assigning lessons, method of, 244 
Attendance, form for reporting, 261; in 

relation to retardation, 41 f. 
Ayres, L. p., 5, 28, 35 

Baltimore, enrollment statistics of, 16 f. 

Baltimore, report of commission ap- 
pointed to study the system of educa- 
tion in pubUc schools of, quoted, 160 
ff., 365 ff. 

Blan, L. B., 37 ff. 

BoNSER, F. G., 54 ff. 

Boston, enrollment statistics of, 16 f. 



Bowdoin, individual courses of study 
at, 190; specialization and "scatter- 
ing" at, 201 f. 

Brooklyn. See New York City. 

Bryan, J. E., 5 

Budget, city school, 3 24 ff- 

Business manager in city school sys- 
tems, 270 

Chester, promotion in, 29 

Chicago, enrollment statistics of, 17; 

promotion in, 28, 29 
Cleveland, enrollment statistics of, 16 f., 

18, 23 f. 
Coefficients of correlation, tables of, 

328 ff. 

COFFMAN, L. D., 94 ff. 

College, examinations for entrance to, 

176 ff. 
Columbia, individual courses of study 

at, 191; specialization and "scatter- 
ing" at, 201 f. 
Columbus (Ohio), enrollment statistics 

of, 17; promotion in, 29 
Committee of Ten, report of, 165 f. 
Connecticut, age-grade table for, 4, 15; 

elimination of pupils in, 22 
Cornell, individual courses of study at, 

192; specialization and "scattering" 

at, 201 f. 

CORNMAN, O. P., 5 

Correlation, coefficients of, 328 ff. 
Course of study, and promotion, 30 f., 

44; in rural high schools, 166 ff.; for 

the A. B. degree, 188 ff. 



387 



388 



Index 



CUBBERLEY, E. P., 369 flF. 

Cumulative record card, 252 ff. 
Curriculum, the elementary school, 
149 fif . ; effect of public opinion upon, 
150; overcrowded, 151; and longer 
school day, 150; percentages of total 
time given to each subject, 152; time 
in minutes for each subject, 152; per- 
centage of recitation time given to 
each subject, 153; time-table. New 
York City schools, 1888, 1904, 154; 
time-table, St. Louis schools, 1888, 
1904, 155; time devoted to each sub- 
ject in English cities, 156 ff.; time 
devoted to each subject in German 
cities, 158 ff.; time devoted to old 
subjects and to new subjects, 160; 
time devoted to arithmetic and alge- 
bra in American cities, 161; place 
in course where certain topics in 
arithmetic are taught, 162; time de- 
voted to manual training, 163; meas- 
uring results, 163 

Dayton, enrollment statistics of, 
17, 18 

Defects, of vision, in relation to re- 
tardation, 41; in relation to eUmina- 
tion, 48, 42. 

Degree of A. B., studies actually taken 
for, 188 ff. 

Denver, enrollment statistics of, 17, 23 f. 

Deportment, and retardation, 41 

Distribution, of pupils, by age and 
grade, 3 ff. 

Earhart, Lida B., 242 ff. 
East Orange, promotion in, 37 ff. 
Economic factors, in ehmination, 50, 53 
Economic status, of pupils, 67 ff.; of 

teachers, 100 ff. 
Education, of teachers, length of, 122 ff., 

in relation to salary, 87 ff., 93 ff., 97 ff. 



Efficiency in teaching, 77 ff.; in relation 
to ability shown in normal school, 
78 ff.; in relation to length of expe- 
rience, 79 ff. 

Election of studies in American colleges, 
188 ff. 

Elgin, promotion in, 29 

Ehmination of pupils from school, 5, 8, 
9 ff.; as measured by individual life- 
histories, 9; as inferred from registra- 
tion statistics, 10 f.; in relation to age, 
12 f . , 15 ff . ; in relation to grade, 1 3 ff . ; 
estimated from enrollment by age, 
19 ff.; and growth of population, 19 f.; 
and migration to and from cities, 20 f.; 
in relation to promotion and retarda- 
tion, 26 ff., 32 if.; causes of, 46 ff. 

Eliot, C. W., 179, 267 ff. 

Elizabeth, promotion in, 37 ff. 

Elliott, E. C, quoted, 354 ff. 

English composition, scale for quality 
of, 229 ff. 

Enrollment, in relation to age and grade, 
3 ff.; in relation to estimates of elimi- 
nation, 10 f., 16 ff.; of high schools, 
in relation to the sex-balance of the 
teaching staff, 132 ff.; of public high 
schools, 165 ff. 

Entrance examinations, 176 ff. 

Entrance to school, age of, 41, 44 

Environment and abihty in arithmetic, 
240 

Examinations for entrance to college, 
176 ff. 

Expectation, of completing high school 
course, in relation to elimination, 50, 
52 f. ^ ^ 

Expenditures, city school, 267; classifi- 
cation of, 273 ff.; basis for comparing, 
277; variabihty, 278 ff.; relationships, 
325 ff.; cost per pupil for each item 
of expense, 279 ff. 

Expenditures, for schools and for other 



Index 



389 



municipal activities, 352 flf.; variabil- 
ity, 354 ff.; relationships, 361 ff. 
Experience in teaching, length of, 124 ff.; 
in relation to efficiency in teaching, 
79 ff.; in relation to salary, 82 ff., 
95 f. 

Family, size of, in case of American 

teachers, 102 
Feminization of education, 145 
Financial reports, uniform, 271 
Fiscal statistics, form for reporting, 255 

ff. 
Fitchburg, enrollment statistics of, 1 7 
Flexibility, of courses of study, in large 

high schools, 173 
Foreign parentage, in relation to re- 
tardation, 41; in relation to elimina- 
tion, 49 

Galesburg, promotion in, 35 

Grades, in relation to age of pupils, 3 fif.; 

inequaUty of, in length, 26 flf., 37 ff.; 

relation of reasoning ability to, 65 ff. 
Graduates of high schools, sex-balance 

of, 137 ff. 
Grand Rapids, enrollment statistics of, 

17, 23 f. 

Handwriting, scales for quality of, 208 ff. 

Hartford, retardation and acceleration 
in, 41 ff. 

Harvard, individual courses of study 
at, 193; specialization and "scatter- 
ing "at, 201 f. 

Headaches, in relation to elimination, 48 

Heredity, and retardation, 43 f. 

HiLLEGAS, M. B., 229 

Illness, in relation to elimination, 48 
Income of parents of teachers, 102 ff. 
Industry, in relation to elimination, 
50 f. 



Inequality, of grades, in length, 26 ff., 

37 ff. 

Jamestown, promotion in, 29 

Jersey City, enrollment statistics of, 

17, 2S f. 

Jessup, W. a., 108 ff., 149 ff. 
Johnstown, enrollment statistics of, 17 
JUDD, C. H., 188 

Kansas City (Kans.), enrollment statis- 
tics of, 17 

Kansas City (IMo.), enrollment statis- 
tics of, 17; promotion in, 28, 29 

Keppel, F. p., 188 

Keyes, C. H., 41 ff. 

Little Rock, enrollment statistics of, 17 
Los Angeles, enrollment statistics of, 1 7 
Louisville, enrollment statistics of, 17 

Manhattan. See New York 
Measurement of educational products, 

207 ff. 
Meek, C. S., 378 
Meriam, J. L., 77 ff. 
Minneapolis, enrollment statistics of, 

17, 18 
Municipal expenditures, school and 

other, 352 ff.; variability, 354 ff.; 

relationships, 361 ff. 

Nativity, of teachers, loi 

Newark, enrollment statistics of, 17. 
23 f. 

New Orleans, enrollment statistics of, 17 

New York City, promotion in, 29, 37 ff.; 
elimination in, 46 ff.; social and eco- 
nomic status of high school pupils in, 
69 ff. 

Normal school education, and efficiency 
in teaching, 77 ff. 



390 



Index 



Occupation, choice of, in relation to 
elimination, 49, 52; in relation to 
studies taken for the A. B. degree, 
190 £f. 

Occupations, of parents of high-school 
pupils, 69 f.; of teachers, loi f. 

Omaha, enrollment statistics of, 1 7 

Pasadena, promotion in, 29 

Paterson, promotion in, 37 ff. 

Payne, B. R., 152 ff. 

Plainfield, promotion in, 37 ff. 

Princeton, individual courses of study 
at, 194; specialization and "scatter- 
ing" at, 201 f. 

Private schools, and elimination, 1 1 

Promotion, 26 ff.; statistics of, 28 f., 
^7 ff.; and the course of study, 30 f.; 
and retardation, 31 f.; flexibility in, 
32; and elimination, 32 ff.; of the same 
student in different grades, 37 ff.; 
causes of, 41 ff.; and ability, 67 f. 

Pupil record-card, 252 ff. 

Race, of teachers, loi. 

Reasoning, ability of children in, 54 ff. 

Record-card, pupil cumulative, 252 ff. 

Records and reports, in relation to effi- 
ciency, 250 

Relationships, among various items of 
municipal expenditure, 361 ff.; among 
various school expenditures, 325 ff. 

Relationship between salaries of janitors 
and salaries of teachers, 3 14 

Rental, family, in relation to elimina- 
tion, 50, 53; of high-school pupils' 
families, 71 ff. 

Reports, school records and, 250; par- 
tial, 262; in cycles, 262; uniformity in, 
263 

Retardation, 5, 8, 26 ff.; and promotion, 
31 f.; incidence of, 37 ff.; statistics 
of; causes of, 41 ff. See Promotion. 



Retention of pupils in school. See 

Ehmination 
Revenue, sources of city, 365 
Rochester, promotion in, 28, 29 
Rural high schools, 166 ff. 

Salaries of teachers, 83 ff., 120 ff., 341, 
346 ff.; in relation to length of educa- 
tion and length of experience, 83 ff.; 
in public and private schools, 129 ff.; 
form for reporting, 259; compared 
with wages of artisans, 341; in high 
schools and elementary schools, 346 ff. 

San Francisco, promotion in, 29 

Scales for measuring educational prod- 
ucts, 207 ff. 

Scholarship, in relation to elimination, 
8, 51, 53; in relation to efficiency in 
teaching, 78 f. 

School expenditures, city, 267; in rela- 
tion to other municipal expenditures, 
352 ff. 

School funds, apportionment of, 
368 ff. 

School records and reports, 
250 

Secondary schools, elimination in, 46 ff.; 
salaries of teachers in, 83 ff.; statis- 
tics of teachers in, iii ff.; sex-balance 
of teachers and pupils in, 132 ff.; size 
of, 165 ff. 

Sex, and elimination, 48, 51; and teach- 
ers' salaries, 89 ff., 95 ff., 120 ff., 
127 ff.; and career as a teacher, 
105 f.; of teachers in relation to the 
sex-balance of the enrollment in pub- 
lic high schools, 132 ff. 

Size of school, as a factor in secondary 
education, 165 ff.; in relation to the 
community's support of education, 
171 ff. 

Social status, of pupils, 69 ff.; of teach- 
ers, 100 ff. 



Index 



391 



Special supervisors, 107 

Springfield (III.), promotion in, 35 

Springfield (Mass.), enrollment statis- 
tics of, 10, 17, 18, 23 f. 

St. Joseph, enrollment statistics of, 17 

St. Paul, enrollment statistics of, 17 

Stanford, individual courses of study 
at, 195; specialization and "scatter- 
ing" at, 201 f. 

Stockton, promotion in, 29 

Stone, C. W., 233 ff. 

Strayer, G. D., 267 ff. 

Students. See Table of Contents. See 
also Age, Grade, Elimination, Re- 
tardation, Promotion, etc. 

Study, teaching children how to, 245 ff. 

Supervision, division of responsibility, 
1 10; salaries of supervisors, 1 1 1 

Supervision of special subjects, 107; 
frequency of, 108; distribution by 
sex, 109 

Teachers. See Table of Contents. See 
also Education, Experience, Sex, 
Salary, etc. 

Tests of ability in reasoning, 55 ff. 

Thorndike, E. L., 5, 9, 23, 26, 78, 82, 
89, 132, 165, 176 

Time devoted to arithmetic in relation 
to result secured, 238 

Toledo, enrollment statistics of, 17 

Transfer from school to school, in rela- 
tion to retardation, 41, 43 

Trenton, promotion in, 29 

Troy, enrollment statistics of, 17 



Unreliability, calculations of, 18 f. 
Updegraff, H. 297 ff., 303 ff., 366 ff. 
Utica, promotion in, 29 

Van Denburg, J. K., 46 ff., 70 ff. 

Variability, of pupils of the same grade, 
in age, 5 f.; of cities with respect to 
elimination by age, 22 ff.; of pupils 
in reasoning ability, 54 ff.; of salary 
for teachers of the same sex, length of 
education and lengthof experience, 94; 
of size of public high schools, 165 ff.; 
of marks of the same individual in 
the same subject in entrance exam- 
inations, 178; of city school expend- 
itures, 278 ff.; measures of, 313; of 
municipal expenditures, 354 ff. 

Wealth, in relation to elimination, 50, 53 

Wellesley, individual courses of study 
at, 196; specialization and "scatter- 
ing" at, 201 f. 

Wesleyan, individual courses of study 
at, 197; specialization and "scatter- 
ing" at, 201 f. 

Wheeling, promotion in, 29 

Williams, individual courses of study 
at, 198; specialization and "scatter- 
ing" at, 201 f. 

Williamsport, promotion in, 35 

Work, methods of, 241; teachers' knowl- 
edge of methods of, 242 ff. 

Yale, individual courses of study at, 
199 f.; specialization and "scatter- 
ing "at, 201 f. 



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